(Book of Numbers: 36:1 - 36:13)
The clan chiefs of Gilead, descendants of Makir son of Mannasseh, the son of Joseph, presented Moses and the clan chiefs of Israel with a petition. In it, they said, "When Jehovah ordered our leader to divide the inherited land by lot, he specified that the inheritance our late brother Zelophedad be willed to his daughters. However, if they marry men from another tribe, their grants of land will go with them to the tribe into which they are marrying. The total area of land granted to our tribe will thus be decreased. When the Year of Jubilee comes, their land will be added to the inheritance of the tribe to which they now belong and will be subjected from the inheritance belonging to our ancestral tribe."
In accordance with Jehovah's commands, Moses gave this judgment to the Israelites, "The point made by these descendants from the tribe of Joseph is quite correct. This is what Jehovah has to say about the daughters of Zelophedad, 'Let them marry whomever they think best, but let them be members of their father's clan and tribe, so that no inheritance of land may be transferred from one tribe to another. All Israelites must preserve the inheritances they have received from their ancestral tribes. A daughter from any tribe of Israel who receives an inheritance must marry within her father's clan and tribe, so that all Israelites will continue to possess in entirety the land that is their ancestral inheritance. No inheritance may be transferred from one tribe to another; each tribe must retain the land it has inherited.'"
The daughters of Zelophedad complied with the command Jehovah gave Moses. Mahlah, Tirzah, Hoglah, Milcah, and Noah, the daughters of Zelophedad, all married first cousins, sons of their father's brothers. They thus married into the clans of the tribe of Manasseh, Joseph's son, so that their inheritance of land remained in their father's clan and tribe.
These are the commands and regulations given to the Israelites through Moses when they were encamped on the plains of Moab by the River Jordan across from Jericho.
Notes
1. In the possession and inheritance of property, it is obvious that personal rights are trumped by tribal rights. Land, given to the tribes by Jehovah, must, under no conditions, leave the tribe; the integrity of Jehovah's division of land scheme must be preserved. The scheme, under the aegis of divine ordination, allows for stable tribal borders and, in theory, at least, prevents any squabbling over land among individual Israelite tribes.
2. That Zelophedad's daughters would have chosen to marry outside their clan, let alone their tribe, seems unlikely. It was expected at this time that mates would be chosen from within the clan or extended family. The Israelites were nothing if not inbred. Moses married a Midianite, technically a Hebrew, but not an Israelite and certainly not a Levite, and even he was subjected to considerable censure for doing so.
3. In most societies the daughter joins the family of her husband and adopts his tribal identity or nationality. Her property becomes his. Only in modern times has a married woman been allowed to own property independent of her husband. Land inherited by a woman would naturally be thought of as going out of the family. Even today, it is the same. For instance, if the Jones Ranch is inherited by daughter who marries a man named Smith, the property is no longer in the hands of a Jones. Even if it is still called the Jones Ranch, it is now owned by Smiths. It’s not the same. There is not, nor perhaps ever can be, complete gender equality in regard to inheritance.
4. Interesting that Jehovah did not foresee this contingency when he first pontificated about female inheritance. The Omniscient One must write law based upon complaints, as would a common law judge.
Saturday, July 25, 2015
Laws Concerning Murder and Revenge
(Book of Numbers 35:16 - 35:34)
"If someone strikes another person with a metal weapon and the blow results in death, then that constitutes murder and the murderer must be executed. If someone wields a stone and strikes another person with it so as to cause his death, then that is murder and the murderer must be executed. Or, if someone strikes and kills another person with a wooden object, that is also murder and the murderer must be executed. The blood avenger is the one charged with putting into effect the sentence of death. When the avenger encounters the murderer, he is obliged to kill him. Also, if someone with evil intent shoves a person or throws something at him so that death results, or if with malice he strikes a person with his fist so that he dies, then a murder has been committed and the murderer must be executed. In these cases as well, when the blood avenger encounters the murderer, he must put him to death.
"But if, without malicious intent, someone pushes another person, or throws something that hits another person unintentionally, or while handling a stone, drops it by accident upon another and death ensues, he was not his enemy and intended him no harm. Therefore, the community should intervene between the killer and the blood avenger and, according to this law, it must protect the inadvertent killer from the blood avenger and allow the killer to return in safety to one of the cities of refuge, where he must remain until the death of the current high priest (he who has been anointed with the holy oil). However, if the killer strays from the confines of the city of refuge to which he has fled and the blood avenger finds him outside the city, the avenger may kill him and not be guilty of murder. The killer must remain within the city of refuge until the death of the high priest; only then may he return home.
"These legal provisions you should observe from generation to generation, irrespective of where you may live. All murders must be sentenced to death, but only on the testimony of witnesses. And no one should be sentenced to death on the testimony of a single witness. No ransom should be accepted for the life of a murderer sentenced to death: all murderers must be executed. Nor should ransom be accepted for one who has fled to a city of refuge, allowing him to return home before the death of the current high priest.
“Do not pollute the land in which you live, for bloodshed pollutes the land. The land cannot be purified from the blood shed upon it save with the blood of the one who has shed it. Therefore, defile not the land on which you live -- and where I live as well, for I live among the children of Israel."
Notes
1. Insights into the Hebrew criminal justice system furnished by the Bible are fascinating, but not always as enlightening as one would wish. Murder is here well define, an act not only directly causing the death of another human being, but motivated by malicious or murderous intent. The means by which death is brought about is immaterial. Here, though, there are only references to acts of violence that cause death. There is, for instance, no discussion of other means of death, such as having one drink poisoned well water or abandoning one to die in the desert. Murder is not committed when the death is accidental and there was no criminal intent on the part of the killer. It is strongly implied, however, that, traditionally, a murderer was anyone who caused the death of another, regardless of intent or possession of a guilty mind; if you killed someone unintentionally it was just as bad as if you had willfully murdered him. There is thus this conflict between traditional values and Jehovan law. The latter does not entirely override the former, but accommodates it. The cities of refuge are a means of preserving the lives of those who kill unintentionally and by accident, but the custom of blood vengeance is still in force: the unintentional killer may be safe in the city of refuge, but if he should leave it, he is subject to the death at the hands of a blood avenger, presumably a family member of the victim. (Taking personal vengeance, as a common practice, could hardly said to have died out until the 20th Century -- think Wyatt Earp.) Avenging a murder does not seems to constitute murder in Jehovan law, unless the avenger violates the sanctuary of a city of refuge.
2. It is curious that the life or death of the high priest should have any effect on the status of unintentional killers in sanctuary. There was probably a custom of a universal amnesty at the death of the high priest. One wonders what problems this might have caused. Might not someone decide to commit a murder when he learns the high priest is on his death bed? And wouldn't those holed up in a city of refuge and eager to go home be tempted to arrange the murder of the high priest?
3. Forbidden is the practice of ransoming, or buying your way out of murder sentence, a just provision that prevents the wealthy man from having the license to kill whomever he wishes and then merely paying a fine, like dropping money into a swear jar.
4. Here the basic moral philosophy in regard to murder is, "an eye or an eye," murder being avenged and cleansed by another murder, basic justice. There is no consideration of fostering guilt in the murderer, of moving him to remorse and repentance, expiation and compensation. Perhaps such concepts are too sophisticated for the times.
"If someone strikes another person with a metal weapon and the blow results in death, then that constitutes murder and the murderer must be executed. If someone wields a stone and strikes another person with it so as to cause his death, then that is murder and the murderer must be executed. Or, if someone strikes and kills another person with a wooden object, that is also murder and the murderer must be executed. The blood avenger is the one charged with putting into effect the sentence of death. When the avenger encounters the murderer, he is obliged to kill him. Also, if someone with evil intent shoves a person or throws something at him so that death results, or if with malice he strikes a person with his fist so that he dies, then a murder has been committed and the murderer must be executed. In these cases as well, when the blood avenger encounters the murderer, he must put him to death.
"But if, without malicious intent, someone pushes another person, or throws something that hits another person unintentionally, or while handling a stone, drops it by accident upon another and death ensues, he was not his enemy and intended him no harm. Therefore, the community should intervene between the killer and the blood avenger and, according to this law, it must protect the inadvertent killer from the blood avenger and allow the killer to return in safety to one of the cities of refuge, where he must remain until the death of the current high priest (he who has been anointed with the holy oil). However, if the killer strays from the confines of the city of refuge to which he has fled and the blood avenger finds him outside the city, the avenger may kill him and not be guilty of murder. The killer must remain within the city of refuge until the death of the high priest; only then may he return home.
"These legal provisions you should observe from generation to generation, irrespective of where you may live. All murders must be sentenced to death, but only on the testimony of witnesses. And no one should be sentenced to death on the testimony of a single witness. No ransom should be accepted for the life of a murderer sentenced to death: all murderers must be executed. Nor should ransom be accepted for one who has fled to a city of refuge, allowing him to return home before the death of the current high priest.
“Do not pollute the land in which you live, for bloodshed pollutes the land. The land cannot be purified from the blood shed upon it save with the blood of the one who has shed it. Therefore, defile not the land on which you live -- and where I live as well, for I live among the children of Israel."
Notes
1. Insights into the Hebrew criminal justice system furnished by the Bible are fascinating, but not always as enlightening as one would wish. Murder is here well define, an act not only directly causing the death of another human being, but motivated by malicious or murderous intent. The means by which death is brought about is immaterial. Here, though, there are only references to acts of violence that cause death. There is, for instance, no discussion of other means of death, such as having one drink poisoned well water or abandoning one to die in the desert. Murder is not committed when the death is accidental and there was no criminal intent on the part of the killer. It is strongly implied, however, that, traditionally, a murderer was anyone who caused the death of another, regardless of intent or possession of a guilty mind; if you killed someone unintentionally it was just as bad as if you had willfully murdered him. There is thus this conflict between traditional values and Jehovan law. The latter does not entirely override the former, but accommodates it. The cities of refuge are a means of preserving the lives of those who kill unintentionally and by accident, but the custom of blood vengeance is still in force: the unintentional killer may be safe in the city of refuge, but if he should leave it, he is subject to the death at the hands of a blood avenger, presumably a family member of the victim. (Taking personal vengeance, as a common practice, could hardly said to have died out until the 20th Century -- think Wyatt Earp.) Avenging a murder does not seems to constitute murder in Jehovan law, unless the avenger violates the sanctuary of a city of refuge.
2. It is curious that the life or death of the high priest should have any effect on the status of unintentional killers in sanctuary. There was probably a custom of a universal amnesty at the death of the high priest. One wonders what problems this might have caused. Might not someone decide to commit a murder when he learns the high priest is on his death bed? And wouldn't those holed up in a city of refuge and eager to go home be tempted to arrange the murder of the high priest?
3. Forbidden is the practice of ransoming, or buying your way out of murder sentence, a just provision that prevents the wealthy man from having the license to kill whomever he wishes and then merely paying a fine, like dropping money into a swear jar.
4. Here the basic moral philosophy in regard to murder is, "an eye or an eye," murder being avenged and cleansed by another murder, basic justice. There is no consideration of fostering guilt in the murderer, of moving him to remorse and repentance, expiation and compensation. Perhaps such concepts are too sophisticated for the times.
Towns for Levites and Cities of Refuge
(Book of Numbers 35:1 - 35:15)
While the Israelites were camped on the plains of Moab by the River Jordan across from Jericho, Jehovah told Moses, "Command that the Israelites give the Levites towns in which to live from their inheritance of land. Also give them pasturage surrounding the towns. The Levites must have their towns to live in and pastures for their cattle and other livestock. The pastures given to the Levites must extend 1000 cubits from the town wall in every direction. With the town at the center, measure, on each side, east, south, west, and north, 2000 cubits. This will comprise the pastureland for the town.
"Among the towns that you grant the Levites should include the 6 cities of refuge, to which a person who has killed someone by accident may safely flee. In addition to them, the Levites should be given 42 towns. In all, 48 towns, with surrounding pasture lands, should be given to the Levites. These towns will come from the land granted to the other Israelite tribes. The larger tribes will give more towns to the Levites, the smaller tribes, fewer. Each tribe will be obliged to give in proportion to the amount of land it owns."
Jehovah told Moses, "Instruct the people of Israel that when they cross the Jordan into Canaan, they must designate certain cities as sanctuaries where those who have killed someone accidentally may find refuge. These cities will furnish protection from those who may wish to exact vengeance and execute the inadvertent killer before he may be tried by the community. Designate 6 cities of refuge for your people, 3 east of the Jordan and 3 west of the Jordan in Canaan. These cities may be used not only by Israelites, but also by resident aliens or traveling merchants; anyone who accidentally kills someone may seek refuge there.
Notes
1. All the tribes are obligated to set aside towns for the use of the Levites, whose population, therefore, will be sprinkled throughout the lands occupied by the Israelites. One assumes that they will be needed locally for religious duties, and also that they will constitute a separate population beholden to the hierarchy of their own tribe, rather, one supposes, like the medieval Catholic priesthood.
2. Although the account is confusing, if not contradictory, it seems the layout of the Levite towns and pasturage was this, an allotment of land 4000 cubits (6000 feet) square with a town 2000 cubits (3000 feet) square in the center. Outside the town is the pastureland, surrounding the town at a distance of a 1000 cubits (1500 feet). This may seem good "on paper," but it makes no allowance for growth. And is every Levite town to be exactly the same size?
3. The necessity for the cities of refuge reveals the conflict at that time between primitive traditions of personal revenge, honor killings, and blood oaths on the one hand and the institution of a national justice system based upon codified law on the other. The cities of refuge are needed to forestall the hot-blooded seekers of vengeance, so that the legal system can have time to pass judgment. Replacing revenge with justice, substituting the aggrieved individual or family acting as an avenger with a communal body objectively determining guilt and inflicting punishment according to law, is a huge advancement in human history. The Hebrew concepts of justice, though, were not unique, but would have acquired by the Israelites from their contact with the Babylonians and later, the Egyptians, both of whom developed credible legal systems a millennium earlier.
4. While there is proportionality in where the Levite towns are to be located, more among the larger tribes and fewer among the smaller tribes, there is no such proportionality in placement of the cities of refuge: 3 cities are to be located west of the River Jordan and 3, east of the river, where there are only 2 1/2 tribes. Was more trouble to be expected from those rowdy and restive Reubenites?
While the Israelites were camped on the plains of Moab by the River Jordan across from Jericho, Jehovah told Moses, "Command that the Israelites give the Levites towns in which to live from their inheritance of land. Also give them pasturage surrounding the towns. The Levites must have their towns to live in and pastures for their cattle and other livestock. The pastures given to the Levites must extend 1000 cubits from the town wall in every direction. With the town at the center, measure, on each side, east, south, west, and north, 2000 cubits. This will comprise the pastureland for the town.
"Among the towns that you grant the Levites should include the 6 cities of refuge, to which a person who has killed someone by accident may safely flee. In addition to them, the Levites should be given 42 towns. In all, 48 towns, with surrounding pasture lands, should be given to the Levites. These towns will come from the land granted to the other Israelite tribes. The larger tribes will give more towns to the Levites, the smaller tribes, fewer. Each tribe will be obliged to give in proportion to the amount of land it owns."
Jehovah told Moses, "Instruct the people of Israel that when they cross the Jordan into Canaan, they must designate certain cities as sanctuaries where those who have killed someone accidentally may find refuge. These cities will furnish protection from those who may wish to exact vengeance and execute the inadvertent killer before he may be tried by the community. Designate 6 cities of refuge for your people, 3 east of the Jordan and 3 west of the Jordan in Canaan. These cities may be used not only by Israelites, but also by resident aliens or traveling merchants; anyone who accidentally kills someone may seek refuge there.
Notes
1. All the tribes are obligated to set aside towns for the use of the Levites, whose population, therefore, will be sprinkled throughout the lands occupied by the Israelites. One assumes that they will be needed locally for religious duties, and also that they will constitute a separate population beholden to the hierarchy of their own tribe, rather, one supposes, like the medieval Catholic priesthood.
2. Although the account is confusing, if not contradictory, it seems the layout of the Levite towns and pasturage was this, an allotment of land 4000 cubits (6000 feet) square with a town 2000 cubits (3000 feet) square in the center. Outside the town is the pastureland, surrounding the town at a distance of a 1000 cubits (1500 feet). This may seem good "on paper," but it makes no allowance for growth. And is every Levite town to be exactly the same size?
3. The necessity for the cities of refuge reveals the conflict at that time between primitive traditions of personal revenge, honor killings, and blood oaths on the one hand and the institution of a national justice system based upon codified law on the other. The cities of refuge are needed to forestall the hot-blooded seekers of vengeance, so that the legal system can have time to pass judgment. Replacing revenge with justice, substituting the aggrieved individual or family acting as an avenger with a communal body objectively determining guilt and inflicting punishment according to law, is a huge advancement in human history. The Hebrew concepts of justice, though, were not unique, but would have acquired by the Israelites from their contact with the Babylonians and later, the Egyptians, both of whom developed credible legal systems a millennium earlier.
4. While there is proportionality in where the Levite towns are to be located, more among the larger tribes and fewer among the smaller tribes, there is no such proportionality in placement of the cities of refuge: 3 cities are to be located west of the River Jordan and 3, east of the river, where there are only 2 1/2 tribes. Was more trouble to be expected from those rowdy and restive Reubenites?
Boundaries of the Promised Land
(Book of Numbers 33:50 - 34:29)
When they were camped on the plains of Moab by the River Jordan, across from Jericho, Jehovah told Moses to tell the Israelites, "When you cross the River Jordan, drive out all the people living there. Destroy their carved idols and brazen images. Demolish their temples and shrines. Take possession of the land and settle on it, for I have given it to you to be your property. You must distribute the land to the clans by lot, proportionally: that is, a larger group will receive a larger parcel of land, a smaller group, a smaller parcel. Whatever falls to them by lot will be theirs. In this way the land will be divided up among the ancestral tribes. But if you fail to drive out the native inhabitants of the land, they will be a thorn in your side and give you trouble wherever you may live in the land. Then I will do to you what I planned to do to them."
Jehovah told Moses to give these commands to the Israelites, "When you enter Canaan, the land that is your inheritance shall have these boundaries:
"Your southern border will include the Desert of Zin along the border of Edom. The boundary line will begin in the east at the Dead Sea. It will extend south to Scorpion Pass in the direction of Zin. Its southernmost point will be Kardesh Barnea, from which it will go to Hazar Addar and then to Azmon. From there it will turn toward the Wadi of Egypt and end at the Mediterranean Sea.
"For your western border you will have the coastline of the Mediterranean Sea; that's your western boundary.
"Your northern border will begin at the Mediterranean Sea and run east to Mount Hor, then to Lebo Hamath, on to Zedad and Ziphron, and then to Hazar Enan. That will be the northern boundary.
"The eastern border will begin at Hazar Enan and run south to Shepham and then to Riblah on the east side of Ain. From there it will run along the eastern edge of the Sea of Galilee and down the River Jordan, ending at the Dead Sea.
"These are the boundaries that encompass your country!"
Moses told the Israelites, "This is the legacy of land that will be divided by lot. Jehovah has commanded that you divide it among the remain 9 1/2 tribes. The ancestral clans of Reuben and Gad and half the tribe of Manasseh have already claimed their inheritance; these 2 1/2 tribes have received grants of land east of the River Jordan across from Jericho, toward the rising sun."
Jehovah instructed Moses, "Eleazar the priest and Joshua son of Nun are the men who should supervise the division of the land grants. And you should appoint a leader from each tribe to assist in this task. The names of the men are as follows:
Caleb son of Jephunneh from the tribe of Judah
Shemuel son of Ammihud from the tribe of Simeon
Elidad son of Kislon from the tribe of Benjamin
Bukki son of Jogli, a leader from the tribe of Dan
Hanniel son of Ephod, a leader from the tribe of Manasseh
Kemuel son of Shiphtan, a leader from the tribe of Ephraim
Elizaphan son of Parnak, a leader from the tribe of Zebulun
Paltiel son of Azzan, a leader from the tribe o Issachar
Ahihud son of Shelomi, a leader from the tribe of Asher
Pedahel son of Ammihud, a leader from the tribe of Naphtali.”
These are the men that Jehovah assigned to oversee the division of the Israelite inheritance in the land of Canaan.
Notes
1. It is Jehovah's plan that the Israelites totally displace the present inhabitants of the Promised Land, the Canaanites, so that they may never be a problem to his people. The Israelites are not to live in harmony with them, they are not to conquer and rule them, but are to expel or exterminate the Canaanites. Considering the vast size of the territory involved and the number of people living there, it would be virtually impossible to empty the land and evict its population. Where would the people go? Could they all be driven into the desert or into the sea? Indeed, Jehovah's plan and the promise of an easy conquest of Canaan is totally unrealistic. Yet, he is setting the boundaries of a land that his people have not yet begun to conquer.
2. Pointedly, Jehovah orders his people to destroy the idols and altars of the Canaanites the Israelites are going to make war against. The Canaanites not only have no right to live in their own ancestral lands, but have no right to worship the gods of their choosing. Jehovah has constantly been at war with his rival gods. There has never been a suggestion that these gods do not exist, only that Jehovah takes primacy over them. Jehovah has made enemies with all the other gods and his Chosen People are used by him as tools to show up and punish them.
3. The borders of traditional Israel are roughly from the Mediterranean Sea to the River Jordan, from the Sea of Galilee to a line drawn from the lower end of the Dead Sea. It includes the Left Bank, but not the Negev, which is part of modern Israel.
When they were camped on the plains of Moab by the River Jordan, across from Jericho, Jehovah told Moses to tell the Israelites, "When you cross the River Jordan, drive out all the people living there. Destroy their carved idols and brazen images. Demolish their temples and shrines. Take possession of the land and settle on it, for I have given it to you to be your property. You must distribute the land to the clans by lot, proportionally: that is, a larger group will receive a larger parcel of land, a smaller group, a smaller parcel. Whatever falls to them by lot will be theirs. In this way the land will be divided up among the ancestral tribes. But if you fail to drive out the native inhabitants of the land, they will be a thorn in your side and give you trouble wherever you may live in the land. Then I will do to you what I planned to do to them."
Jehovah told Moses to give these commands to the Israelites, "When you enter Canaan, the land that is your inheritance shall have these boundaries:
"Your southern border will include the Desert of Zin along the border of Edom. The boundary line will begin in the east at the Dead Sea. It will extend south to Scorpion Pass in the direction of Zin. Its southernmost point will be Kardesh Barnea, from which it will go to Hazar Addar and then to Azmon. From there it will turn toward the Wadi of Egypt and end at the Mediterranean Sea.
"For your western border you will have the coastline of the Mediterranean Sea; that's your western boundary.
"Your northern border will begin at the Mediterranean Sea and run east to Mount Hor, then to Lebo Hamath, on to Zedad and Ziphron, and then to Hazar Enan. That will be the northern boundary.
"The eastern border will begin at Hazar Enan and run south to Shepham and then to Riblah on the east side of Ain. From there it will run along the eastern edge of the Sea of Galilee and down the River Jordan, ending at the Dead Sea.
"These are the boundaries that encompass your country!"
Moses told the Israelites, "This is the legacy of land that will be divided by lot. Jehovah has commanded that you divide it among the remain 9 1/2 tribes. The ancestral clans of Reuben and Gad and half the tribe of Manasseh have already claimed their inheritance; these 2 1/2 tribes have received grants of land east of the River Jordan across from Jericho, toward the rising sun."
Jehovah instructed Moses, "Eleazar the priest and Joshua son of Nun are the men who should supervise the division of the land grants. And you should appoint a leader from each tribe to assist in this task. The names of the men are as follows:
Caleb son of Jephunneh from the tribe of Judah
Shemuel son of Ammihud from the tribe of Simeon
Elidad son of Kislon from the tribe of Benjamin
Bukki son of Jogli, a leader from the tribe of Dan
Hanniel son of Ephod, a leader from the tribe of Manasseh
Kemuel son of Shiphtan, a leader from the tribe of Ephraim
Elizaphan son of Parnak, a leader from the tribe of Zebulun
Paltiel son of Azzan, a leader from the tribe o Issachar
Ahihud son of Shelomi, a leader from the tribe of Asher
Pedahel son of Ammihud, a leader from the tribe of Naphtali.”
These are the men that Jehovah assigned to oversee the division of the Israelite inheritance in the land of Canaan.
Notes
1. It is Jehovah's plan that the Israelites totally displace the present inhabitants of the Promised Land, the Canaanites, so that they may never be a problem to his people. The Israelites are not to live in harmony with them, they are not to conquer and rule them, but are to expel or exterminate the Canaanites. Considering the vast size of the territory involved and the number of people living there, it would be virtually impossible to empty the land and evict its population. Where would the people go? Could they all be driven into the desert or into the sea? Indeed, Jehovah's plan and the promise of an easy conquest of Canaan is totally unrealistic. Yet, he is setting the boundaries of a land that his people have not yet begun to conquer.
2. Pointedly, Jehovah orders his people to destroy the idols and altars of the Canaanites the Israelites are going to make war against. The Canaanites not only have no right to live in their own ancestral lands, but have no right to worship the gods of their choosing. Jehovah has constantly been at war with his rival gods. There has never been a suggestion that these gods do not exist, only that Jehovah takes primacy over them. Jehovah has made enemies with all the other gods and his Chosen People are used by him as tools to show up and punish them.
3. The borders of traditional Israel are roughly from the Mediterranean Sea to the River Jordan, from the Sea of Galilee to a line drawn from the lower end of the Dead Sea. It includes the Left Bank, but not the Negev, which is part of modern Israel.
Friday, July 24, 2015
Stations of the Exodus
(Book of Numbers 33:1 - 33:49)
These are the stations of the Exodus, during which the people of Israel marched out of Egypt in military formation under the leadership of Moses and Aaron. At Jehovah's instruction Moses kept a written record of the progress of their journey and these are the starting points of each stage of the journey.
1. They departed the Egyptian city of Rameses on the 15th day of the 1st month (Nisan), on the day after Passover. They marched out defiantly while the Egyptians were burying their firstborn whom Jehovah had struck down in their midst, for he exacted punishment even upon their gods.
2. The Israelites left Rameses and camped in Sukkoth.
3. They left Sukkoth and camped in Etham, on the edge of the desert.
4. They left Etham, turned back toward Pi Hahiroth, opposite Baal Zephon, and camped near Migdol.
5. They left Pi Hahiroth, crossed the Red Sea, and journeyed into the desert. Three days into the Desert of Etham, they camped at Marah.
6. They left Marah and camped at Elim, where there are 12 springs and 70 palm trees.
7. They left Elim and camped on the shore of the Red Sea.
8. They left the shore of the Red Sea and camped in the Desert of Sin.
9. They left the Desert of Sin and camped at Dophkah.
10. They left Dophkah and camped at Alush.
11. They left Alush and camped at Rephidim, where there was no water for the people to drink.
12. They left Rephidim and camped in the Desert of Sinai.
13. They left the Desert of Sinai and camped at Kibroth Hattaava.
14. They left Kibroth Hattaava and camped at Hazeroth.
15. They left Hazeroth and camped at Rithmah.
16. They left Rithmah and camped at Rimmon Perez.
17. They left Rimmon Perez and camped at Libnah.
18. They left Libnah and camped at Rissah.
19. They left Rissah and camped at Kehelathah.
20. They left Kehelathah and camped at Mount Shepher.
21. They left Mount Shepher and camped at Haradah.
22. They left Haradah and camped at Makheloth.
23. They left Makheloth and camped at Tahath.
24. They left Tahath and camped at Terah.
25. They left Terah and camped at Mithkah.
26. They left Mithkah and camped at Hashmonah.
27. They left Hashmonah and camped at Moseroth.
28. They left Moseroth and camped at Bene Jaakan.
29. They left Bene Jaakan and camped at Hor Haggidgad.
30. They left Hor Haggidgad and camped at Jotbathah.
31. They left Jotbathah and camped at Abronah.
32. They left Abronah and camped at Ezion Geber.
33. They left Ezion Geber and camped at Kadesh, in the Desert of Zin.
34. They left Kadesh and camped at Mount Hor, on the border of Edom. At Jehovah's command Aaron ascended Mount Hor, where he died on the 1st day of the 5th month on the 40th year after the Israelites had departed Egypt. Aaron was 123 years old when he died on Mount Hor.
35. At that time the Canaanite king of Arad in the Negev heard words that the Israelites were approaching his country. The Israelites left Mount Hor and camped at Zalmonah.
36. They left Zalmonah and camped at Punon.
37. They left Punon and camped at Oboth.
38. They left Oboth and camped at Iye Abarim, the border of Moab.
39. They left Iye Abarim and camped at Dibon Gad.
40. They left Dibon Gad and camped at Almon Diblathaim.
41. They left Almon Diblathaim and camped in the mountains of Abarim, near Mount Nebo.
42. They left the mountains of Abarim and camped on the plains of Moab beside the River Jordan across from Jericho. Their camp along the Jordan stretched from Beth Jeshimoth to Abel Shittim on the plains of Moab.
Notes
1. While the specificity of the 42 stations of the Exodus would seem to make the itinerary very clear, the locations of most the stations is problematic and the actual course, a matter of long-standing controversy. Suffice it to say, the Israelites left Egypt and wandered through the deserts of Sinai, eventually moving north into the Negev and then to the plains of Moab, east of the River Jordan. Most of the journeying recounted by the biblical chronicle takes place during the first two years after the departure from Egypt. There is a long hiatus in the narrative and suddenly we are brought up to a point 40 years after the Egyptian departure. Why is this? Did nothing happen for 38 years? Were the records of that period lost? Or perhaps the Exodus lasted only 3 years, not 40.
2. Many of the places and the names for them are anachronistic, from a time hundreds of years after the likely time of the Exodus. Among these is the Egyptian Delta city of Rameses, leading to the popular fantasy that the Exodus occurred during the reign of Rameses the Great, which is the least likely period during which the Exodus could have occurred.
3. The list of stations agrees imperfectly with the narrative of the Exodus. It rather seems like it was pasted on to the narrative from another account. As a summary of the journey it is very unsatisfying and misses many of the highlights. For instance, wouldn’t a reference to Moses receiving the Ten Commandments not been fitting?
3. The age of Aaron at his death is listed here -- 123 years old. This, of course, is preposterous for several reasons, the most important being that no one lives or has ever lived to be that old!
4. Moses kept a record of the journey, and again we must ask, in which language, in what form of writing, for Hebrew would not exist for hundreds of years nor would any kind of alphabet. Did Moses write everything down in Egyptian hieroglyphics? And at what time was it translated and inscribed in Hebrew?
These are the stations of the Exodus, during which the people of Israel marched out of Egypt in military formation under the leadership of Moses and Aaron. At Jehovah's instruction Moses kept a written record of the progress of their journey and these are the starting points of each stage of the journey.
1. They departed the Egyptian city of Rameses on the 15th day of the 1st month (Nisan), on the day after Passover. They marched out defiantly while the Egyptians were burying their firstborn whom Jehovah had struck down in their midst, for he exacted punishment even upon their gods.
2. The Israelites left Rameses and camped in Sukkoth.
3. They left Sukkoth and camped in Etham, on the edge of the desert.
4. They left Etham, turned back toward Pi Hahiroth, opposite Baal Zephon, and camped near Migdol.
5. They left Pi Hahiroth, crossed the Red Sea, and journeyed into the desert. Three days into the Desert of Etham, they camped at Marah.
6. They left Marah and camped at Elim, where there are 12 springs and 70 palm trees.
7. They left Elim and camped on the shore of the Red Sea.
8. They left the shore of the Red Sea and camped in the Desert of Sin.
9. They left the Desert of Sin and camped at Dophkah.
10. They left Dophkah and camped at Alush.
11. They left Alush and camped at Rephidim, where there was no water for the people to drink.
12. They left Rephidim and camped in the Desert of Sinai.
13. They left the Desert of Sinai and camped at Kibroth Hattaava.
14. They left Kibroth Hattaava and camped at Hazeroth.
15. They left Hazeroth and camped at Rithmah.
16. They left Rithmah and camped at Rimmon Perez.
17. They left Rimmon Perez and camped at Libnah.
18. They left Libnah and camped at Rissah.
19. They left Rissah and camped at Kehelathah.
20. They left Kehelathah and camped at Mount Shepher.
21. They left Mount Shepher and camped at Haradah.
22. They left Haradah and camped at Makheloth.
23. They left Makheloth and camped at Tahath.
24. They left Tahath and camped at Terah.
25. They left Terah and camped at Mithkah.
26. They left Mithkah and camped at Hashmonah.
27. They left Hashmonah and camped at Moseroth.
28. They left Moseroth and camped at Bene Jaakan.
29. They left Bene Jaakan and camped at Hor Haggidgad.
30. They left Hor Haggidgad and camped at Jotbathah.
31. They left Jotbathah and camped at Abronah.
32. They left Abronah and camped at Ezion Geber.
33. They left Ezion Geber and camped at Kadesh, in the Desert of Zin.
34. They left Kadesh and camped at Mount Hor, on the border of Edom. At Jehovah's command Aaron ascended Mount Hor, where he died on the 1st day of the 5th month on the 40th year after the Israelites had departed Egypt. Aaron was 123 years old when he died on Mount Hor.
35. At that time the Canaanite king of Arad in the Negev heard words that the Israelites were approaching his country. The Israelites left Mount Hor and camped at Zalmonah.
36. They left Zalmonah and camped at Punon.
37. They left Punon and camped at Oboth.
38. They left Oboth and camped at Iye Abarim, the border of Moab.
39. They left Iye Abarim and camped at Dibon Gad.
40. They left Dibon Gad and camped at Almon Diblathaim.
41. They left Almon Diblathaim and camped in the mountains of Abarim, near Mount Nebo.
42. They left the mountains of Abarim and camped on the plains of Moab beside the River Jordan across from Jericho. Their camp along the Jordan stretched from Beth Jeshimoth to Abel Shittim on the plains of Moab.
Notes
1. While the specificity of the 42 stations of the Exodus would seem to make the itinerary very clear, the locations of most the stations is problematic and the actual course, a matter of long-standing controversy. Suffice it to say, the Israelites left Egypt and wandered through the deserts of Sinai, eventually moving north into the Negev and then to the plains of Moab, east of the River Jordan. Most of the journeying recounted by the biblical chronicle takes place during the first two years after the departure from Egypt. There is a long hiatus in the narrative and suddenly we are brought up to a point 40 years after the Egyptian departure. Why is this? Did nothing happen for 38 years? Were the records of that period lost? Or perhaps the Exodus lasted only 3 years, not 40.
2. Many of the places and the names for them are anachronistic, from a time hundreds of years after the likely time of the Exodus. Among these is the Egyptian Delta city of Rameses, leading to the popular fantasy that the Exodus occurred during the reign of Rameses the Great, which is the least likely period during which the Exodus could have occurred.
3. The list of stations agrees imperfectly with the narrative of the Exodus. It rather seems like it was pasted on to the narrative from another account. As a summary of the journey it is very unsatisfying and misses many of the highlights. For instance, wouldn’t a reference to Moses receiving the Ten Commandments not been fitting?
3. The age of Aaron at his death is listed here -- 123 years old. This, of course, is preposterous for several reasons, the most important being that no one lives or has ever lived to be that old!
4. Moses kept a record of the journey, and again we must ask, in which language, in what form of writing, for Hebrew would not exist for hundreds of years nor would any kind of alphabet. Did Moses write everything down in Egyptian hieroglyphics? And at what time was it translated and inscribed in Hebrew?
Occupation of Transjordan
(Book of Numbers 32:1 - 32:42)
The tribes of Reuben and Gad possessed a remarkably large number of livestock. When they saw that the lands of Jazer and Gilead were ideal for their flocks and herds, they came to Moses, Eleazar the priest, and the leaders of the community and declared, "Ataroth, Dibon, Jazer, Nimrah, Heshbon, Elealeh, Sebam, Nebo, and Beon, lands pacified by Jehovah for the sake of the Israelite people, are well suited for all our livestock. Please approve our request, grant us, your servants, permission to settle in this land, rather than making us cross to the other side of the River Jordan."
Moses rebuked the men of Gad and Reuben, "Do you intend to sit here idly while your brother Israelites go to war? Why are you trying to dissuade the rest of the Israelites from crossing the River Jordan to the land Jehovah has granted them? That's just what your ancestors did when I sent them to Kardesh Barnea to explore the land. After they had gone up the Eshcol Valley and surveyed the terrain, they discouraged the Israelites from entering the land Jehovah had given them. On that day Jehovah’s ire was aroused and he swore, 'Of all of those that I liberated from Egypt, none who is twenty years or above will ever set eyes upon the fertile land I promised to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, for they have not followed me faithfully -- except Caleb son of Jephunneh, the Kenizzite, and Joshua son of Nun, who have followed Jehovah faithfully.' And so Jehovah's wrath was vented against the Israelites and he made them wander in the desert for 40 years, until the entire generation that had rebelled against him had perished. Here you are, you brood of sinners, repeating the sin of your fathers and making Jehovah even more enraged at Israel! If you people of Gad and Reuben defy him again and Jehovah again abandons the entire nation of Israel in the desert, you will be responsible for its destruction.”
But they approached him and explained, "We just want to build some pens for our livestock and fortified settlements in which our women and children may safely dwell. But we will be in the fore when the Israelites take arms, and we will remain so until they are securely settled in their new land. Our families may take refuge in the forts we have built so that they will be protected from the local population. We will not return home until all the Israelites have settled the lands that are its inheritance. But we will not claim any inheritance of land on that side of the Jordan, for we wish to accept our grant of land on this side of the Jordan."
Moses told them, "If you abide by what you say, if you will take up arms and fight for Jehovah, if your army will cross the River Jordan and keep up the fight until Jehovah has expelled his enemies, then, when Jehovah has pacified the country, you may return. You will have satisfied your obligations to Jehovah and to the rest of the Israelite people. And this land will be recognized as your property by Jehovah. If you do not do this, though, you will have committed a sin against Jehovah -- and rest assured that your sin will not go unpunished. Go ahead and build the settlements for your families and the pens for your livestock. But do what you have promised!"
The Gadites and Reubenites thus promised Moses, "We, your servants, will follow your instructions explicitly. Our wives and children, flocks and herds will remain here in the towns of Gilead. All of us who are able to bear arms will cross the river Jordan and fight for Jehovah, just as you, our master, bids us."
Moses then gave orders concerning them to Eleazar the priest and the clan heads of Israel's tribes. He told them, "Fighting men from the tribes of Gad and Reuben are to cross the River Jordan with you and fight for Jehovah. If they do so and remain until the land is subdued, then the lands of Gilead will be their property. But if they refuse to take arms and cross the river with you, then they must accept an inheritance with you in Canaan."
The Gadites and Reubenites reiterated their vow, "We, your servants, will do as Jehovah has commanded. We will take arms and cross the River Jordan into Canaan to fight for Jehovah -- but our inheritance of land is on this side of the river."
Moses granted to Gadites, the Reubenites and to the half the tribe of Manasseh son of Joseph land that was once the territories of King Sihon of the Amorites and King Og of Bashan, all the land and cities, as well as the surrounding regions and towns. The Gadites restored and fortified the cities of Dibon, Ataroth, Aroer, Atroth Shophan, Jazer, Jogbehah, Beth Nimrah and Beth Haran, and they built pens for their livestock. The Reubenites restored Heshbon, Elealah, and Kiriathaim, as well as Nebo, Baal Meon (whose names were changed), and Sibmah. (Many of the conquered towns they rebuilt were given new names.)
The clan of Machir son of Manasseh attacked Gilead, conquered it, and expelled the Amorites who lived there. Thus Moses gave Gilead to the Machirites, and they settled there. Jair, another clan of the tribe of Manasseh, captured many towns in the area of Gilead and changed the name of the region to Havvoth Jair [the towns of Jair]. A certain Nobah captured Kenath and the surrounding area and thus named it Nobah after himself.
Notes
1. An important element of the Jehovan religion and fundamental to his agreement with the Israelite people is Jehovah's promise to furnish his people with a land of their own, a specific place, Canaan. To eschew this gift is tantamount to sacrilege, and Jehovah has always taken umbrage to any of his people who even suggest that they might permanently dwell elsewhere or claim some land other than that he is determined to give them. By expressing a desire to settle anywhere but the Promised Land, the Reubenites and Gadites are on dangerous ground. It is no wonder that Moses (who is an old man now and talks like one) is furious as he sees a tragic event in Israelite history about to repeat itself. He is offended and his pride hurt that some of his people won't fall in with his plan and have the nerve to express ideas of their own concerning where they are to live. He does, though, relent, provided the Reubenites and Gadites help the other Israelites conquer Canaan.
2. The Reubenites and Gadites are attracted to the land in Transjordan because it suits the abundant flocks and herds they possess. Why should these two tribes of Israel have more livestock than the other ten, especially when the other tribes sported larger populations? Were they better herdsmen or breeders?
3. The Reubenites and Gadites want to build fortified settlements to protect their families when they are gone fighting on the other side of the Jordan, which they seem to think won't take more than a few months. Are they being realistic? Faced with any kind of fighting force, how long could a bunch of women and children hold out even in the most secure of strongholds? And how long will it take for the Israelites to subdue Canaan?
4. Roughly, the allocation of land east of the River Jordan was thus: the tribe of Reuben held the area east of the northern part of the Dead Sea, north of Moab; Gad held territory to the north of it, between the Jordan and Amon. Half of the tribe of Manasseh occupied a larger territory north of Gad and east of the Jordan almost as far north as the Sea of Galilee.
5. The Amorites mentioned in the Bible, probably not the same as the Amorites of Mesopotamia, were Canaanites who dwelled in mountainous regions east of the River Jordan. Two of their kings, Sihon and Og, have been defeated by the Israelites, allowing their territory to be occupied by the Reubenites, Gadites, and Machirites. (The Amorites, though, do not disappear from the biblical chronicle.) While the two kings, Og in particular, who is referred to as a giant, are mentioned in extra-biblical folklore, there is no evidence of their existence or of their connection to the Israelites. That the Transjordan of this time was overwhelmed by any invaders, Israelite or otherwise, is not supported historically or archaeologically. That the tribes occupying the Transjordan by the beginning of the 1st Millennium BC were descendants of Jacob's sons is purely conjectural and probably fanciful.
The tribes of Reuben and Gad possessed a remarkably large number of livestock. When they saw that the lands of Jazer and Gilead were ideal for their flocks and herds, they came to Moses, Eleazar the priest, and the leaders of the community and declared, "Ataroth, Dibon, Jazer, Nimrah, Heshbon, Elealeh, Sebam, Nebo, and Beon, lands pacified by Jehovah for the sake of the Israelite people, are well suited for all our livestock. Please approve our request, grant us, your servants, permission to settle in this land, rather than making us cross to the other side of the River Jordan."
Moses rebuked the men of Gad and Reuben, "Do you intend to sit here idly while your brother Israelites go to war? Why are you trying to dissuade the rest of the Israelites from crossing the River Jordan to the land Jehovah has granted them? That's just what your ancestors did when I sent them to Kardesh Barnea to explore the land. After they had gone up the Eshcol Valley and surveyed the terrain, they discouraged the Israelites from entering the land Jehovah had given them. On that day Jehovah’s ire was aroused and he swore, 'Of all of those that I liberated from Egypt, none who is twenty years or above will ever set eyes upon the fertile land I promised to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, for they have not followed me faithfully -- except Caleb son of Jephunneh, the Kenizzite, and Joshua son of Nun, who have followed Jehovah faithfully.' And so Jehovah's wrath was vented against the Israelites and he made them wander in the desert for 40 years, until the entire generation that had rebelled against him had perished. Here you are, you brood of sinners, repeating the sin of your fathers and making Jehovah even more enraged at Israel! If you people of Gad and Reuben defy him again and Jehovah again abandons the entire nation of Israel in the desert, you will be responsible for its destruction.”
But they approached him and explained, "We just want to build some pens for our livestock and fortified settlements in which our women and children may safely dwell. But we will be in the fore when the Israelites take arms, and we will remain so until they are securely settled in their new land. Our families may take refuge in the forts we have built so that they will be protected from the local population. We will not return home until all the Israelites have settled the lands that are its inheritance. But we will not claim any inheritance of land on that side of the Jordan, for we wish to accept our grant of land on this side of the Jordan."
Moses told them, "If you abide by what you say, if you will take up arms and fight for Jehovah, if your army will cross the River Jordan and keep up the fight until Jehovah has expelled his enemies, then, when Jehovah has pacified the country, you may return. You will have satisfied your obligations to Jehovah and to the rest of the Israelite people. And this land will be recognized as your property by Jehovah. If you do not do this, though, you will have committed a sin against Jehovah -- and rest assured that your sin will not go unpunished. Go ahead and build the settlements for your families and the pens for your livestock. But do what you have promised!"
The Gadites and Reubenites thus promised Moses, "We, your servants, will follow your instructions explicitly. Our wives and children, flocks and herds will remain here in the towns of Gilead. All of us who are able to bear arms will cross the river Jordan and fight for Jehovah, just as you, our master, bids us."
Moses then gave orders concerning them to Eleazar the priest and the clan heads of Israel's tribes. He told them, "Fighting men from the tribes of Gad and Reuben are to cross the River Jordan with you and fight for Jehovah. If they do so and remain until the land is subdued, then the lands of Gilead will be their property. But if they refuse to take arms and cross the river with you, then they must accept an inheritance with you in Canaan."
The Gadites and Reubenites reiterated their vow, "We, your servants, will do as Jehovah has commanded. We will take arms and cross the River Jordan into Canaan to fight for Jehovah -- but our inheritance of land is on this side of the river."
Moses granted to Gadites, the Reubenites and to the half the tribe of Manasseh son of Joseph land that was once the territories of King Sihon of the Amorites and King Og of Bashan, all the land and cities, as well as the surrounding regions and towns. The Gadites restored and fortified the cities of Dibon, Ataroth, Aroer, Atroth Shophan, Jazer, Jogbehah, Beth Nimrah and Beth Haran, and they built pens for their livestock. The Reubenites restored Heshbon, Elealah, and Kiriathaim, as well as Nebo, Baal Meon (whose names were changed), and Sibmah. (Many of the conquered towns they rebuilt were given new names.)
The clan of Machir son of Manasseh attacked Gilead, conquered it, and expelled the Amorites who lived there. Thus Moses gave Gilead to the Machirites, and they settled there. Jair, another clan of the tribe of Manasseh, captured many towns in the area of Gilead and changed the name of the region to Havvoth Jair [the towns of Jair]. A certain Nobah captured Kenath and the surrounding area and thus named it Nobah after himself.
Notes
1. An important element of the Jehovan religion and fundamental to his agreement with the Israelite people is Jehovah's promise to furnish his people with a land of their own, a specific place, Canaan. To eschew this gift is tantamount to sacrilege, and Jehovah has always taken umbrage to any of his people who even suggest that they might permanently dwell elsewhere or claim some land other than that he is determined to give them. By expressing a desire to settle anywhere but the Promised Land, the Reubenites and Gadites are on dangerous ground. It is no wonder that Moses (who is an old man now and talks like one) is furious as he sees a tragic event in Israelite history about to repeat itself. He is offended and his pride hurt that some of his people won't fall in with his plan and have the nerve to express ideas of their own concerning where they are to live. He does, though, relent, provided the Reubenites and Gadites help the other Israelites conquer Canaan.
2. The Reubenites and Gadites are attracted to the land in Transjordan because it suits the abundant flocks and herds they possess. Why should these two tribes of Israel have more livestock than the other ten, especially when the other tribes sported larger populations? Were they better herdsmen or breeders?
3. The Reubenites and Gadites want to build fortified settlements to protect their families when they are gone fighting on the other side of the Jordan, which they seem to think won't take more than a few months. Are they being realistic? Faced with any kind of fighting force, how long could a bunch of women and children hold out even in the most secure of strongholds? And how long will it take for the Israelites to subdue Canaan?
4. Roughly, the allocation of land east of the River Jordan was thus: the tribe of Reuben held the area east of the northern part of the Dead Sea, north of Moab; Gad held territory to the north of it, between the Jordan and Amon. Half of the tribe of Manasseh occupied a larger territory north of Gad and east of the Jordan almost as far north as the Sea of Galilee.
5. The Amorites mentioned in the Bible, probably not the same as the Amorites of Mesopotamia, were Canaanites who dwelled in mountainous regions east of the River Jordan. Two of their kings, Sihon and Og, have been defeated by the Israelites, allowing their territory to be occupied by the Reubenites, Gadites, and Machirites. (The Amorites, though, do not disappear from the biblical chronicle.) While the two kings, Og in particular, who is referred to as a giant, are mentioned in extra-biblical folklore, there is no evidence of their existence or of their connection to the Israelites. That the Transjordan of this time was overwhelmed by any invaders, Israelite or otherwise, is not supported historically or archaeologically. That the tribes occupying the Transjordan by the beginning of the 1st Millennium BC were descendants of Jacob's sons is purely conjectural and probably fanciful.
Division of the Spoils
(Book of Numbers 31:25 - 31:54)
Jehovah told Moses, "You, Eleazar the priest, and the clan leaders from each tribe are to take an inventory of all the livestock and human captives so that you can divided them equally between the soldiers who took part in the war and the rest of the community. From the share of the plunder given to the fighting men you should set aside as tribute to Jehovah one out of every 500 of the human captives, cattle, donkeys, sheep, or goats. The tribute from their share should be given to Eleazar the priest as an offering to Jehovah. From the half share that is granted to the people of Israel, set aside one out of every 50 of the human captives, cattle, donkeys, sheep, goats, and other livestock. These should be turned over to the Levites who are in charge of maintaining Jehovah's Tabernacle."
Moses and Eleazar the priest did as they were instructed by Jehovah.
The spoils remaining from that plundered by the soldiers consisted of: 675,000 sheep and goats, 72,000 cattle, 61,000 donkeys, and 32,000 virgins.
The half-share given to the soldiers that took part in the war was 337,500 sheep, with 675 allotted to Jehovah, 36,000 cattle, with 72 allotted to Jehovah, 30,500 donkeys, with 61 allotted to Jehovah, and 16,000 virgins, with 32 allotted to Jehovah.
Moses turned over Jehovah's share to Eleazar the priest, as Jehovah had instructed him.
Half of the plunder belonged to the Israelite people, and so Moses separated it from the share belonging to the soldiers. It consisted of 337,500 sheep and goats, 36,000 cattle, 30,500 donkeys, and 16,000 virgins. From this half-share given to the Israelite people, Moses gave to the Levites responsible for the maintenance of the Tabernacle one out of every 50 of the animals and human captives, in accordance with the commands given to him by Jehovah.
The generals and captains came to Moses and reported, "We, your servants, have accounted for all the men who went into battle under our command -- and not one of them is missing! Therefore, we are bringing as an offering to Jehovah all the articles of gold we took as booty, armlets and bracelets, signet rings and earrings, necklaces and pendants -- in order that we may make atonement with Jehovah."
Moses and Eleazar received from the military commanders all manner of jewelry and crafted articles of gold. The gold offered to Jehovah by the generals and captains amounted to 16,750 shekels worth (after every soldier had taken his share of the booty). Moses and Eleazar the priest accepted the articles of gold from the generals and captains and displayed them in the Tabernacle before Jehovah's altar as a memorial.
Notes
1. The amount of livestock plundered by the Israelites seems considerable, as well as the number of captive virgins. How wonderful that it was all recorded so precisely and deemed important enough to pass down hundred and hundreds of years so that the chroniclers of the Bible could include it in their narrative, which, on the other hand, gives no description at all about the military engagements that must have been a part of the Israelite-Midianite War. Surprisingly, there is no account of the number of Midianites killed in battle or the captive women and boys who were liquidated. All in all, though, it was the total destruction of a society, a complete genocide, save that Midianite DNA would be passed down through the children of the captive and soon-to-be-no-longer virgins. Ancient man had no concept of genetics, and it was a commonly held belief that a child was derived from the father alone. While this is contrary to even superficial observation -- children take after their mothers as much as their fathers -- this belief supported the view that the extermination of a tribe or nation could be accomplished merely by killing all its male members. It never seemed to dawn upon conquerors that when they were raping and having children by the women of the people they had conquered they were continuing the blood line of their enemy, even if the mixed offspring that resulted from such liaisons would be accepted and reared as a member of the father's ethnic group.
2. The fate of the captive virgins is not mentioned. Would they all become slaves or maybe concubines, even wives? Those given as tribute to the misogynistic Jehovah, were they to become servants to the priests or did a grimmer fate await them -- human sacrifices?
3. The Israelites were enriched exceedingly by their war with the Midianites. Since they were basically nomadic herdsman wandering in areas that were mostly deserts, the Israelites could have had little opportunity to increase their wealth. They were engaged in no manufacture and little trade. Their society and its mentor, Jehovah, did nothing to encourage the pursuit of knowledge, the acquisition of new crafts, even constructive relationships with their neighbors, so really the only way they could acquire wealth was to steal it from the people they would kill or conquer.
4. The army commanders gratefully donate to Jehovah all the gold they have looted, since during the war they have suffered no fatalities. Really! Their untrained army of tribal recruits killed every last Midianite and yet loss not one of their number? You would have thought that even one of Jethro's now aged daughters could have managed to dispatch at least one Israelite!
5. The gold, 16,750 shekels, amounted to 420 pounds, and since it was all in crafted articles, pieces of jewelry and so forth it would have greater value than just its weight in gold. It is not entirely clear, but it seems that the common soldiers kept their share of the loot, while the officers denoted their share of gold artifacts to Jehovah.
Jehovah told Moses, "You, Eleazar the priest, and the clan leaders from each tribe are to take an inventory of all the livestock and human captives so that you can divided them equally between the soldiers who took part in the war and the rest of the community. From the share of the plunder given to the fighting men you should set aside as tribute to Jehovah one out of every 500 of the human captives, cattle, donkeys, sheep, or goats. The tribute from their share should be given to Eleazar the priest as an offering to Jehovah. From the half share that is granted to the people of Israel, set aside one out of every 50 of the human captives, cattle, donkeys, sheep, goats, and other livestock. These should be turned over to the Levites who are in charge of maintaining Jehovah's Tabernacle."
Moses and Eleazar the priest did as they were instructed by Jehovah.
The spoils remaining from that plundered by the soldiers consisted of: 675,000 sheep and goats, 72,000 cattle, 61,000 donkeys, and 32,000 virgins.
The half-share given to the soldiers that took part in the war was 337,500 sheep, with 675 allotted to Jehovah, 36,000 cattle, with 72 allotted to Jehovah, 30,500 donkeys, with 61 allotted to Jehovah, and 16,000 virgins, with 32 allotted to Jehovah.
Moses turned over Jehovah's share to Eleazar the priest, as Jehovah had instructed him.
Half of the plunder belonged to the Israelite people, and so Moses separated it from the share belonging to the soldiers. It consisted of 337,500 sheep and goats, 36,000 cattle, 30,500 donkeys, and 16,000 virgins. From this half-share given to the Israelite people, Moses gave to the Levites responsible for the maintenance of the Tabernacle one out of every 50 of the animals and human captives, in accordance with the commands given to him by Jehovah.
The generals and captains came to Moses and reported, "We, your servants, have accounted for all the men who went into battle under our command -- and not one of them is missing! Therefore, we are bringing as an offering to Jehovah all the articles of gold we took as booty, armlets and bracelets, signet rings and earrings, necklaces and pendants -- in order that we may make atonement with Jehovah."
Moses and Eleazar received from the military commanders all manner of jewelry and crafted articles of gold. The gold offered to Jehovah by the generals and captains amounted to 16,750 shekels worth (after every soldier had taken his share of the booty). Moses and Eleazar the priest accepted the articles of gold from the generals and captains and displayed them in the Tabernacle before Jehovah's altar as a memorial.
Notes
1. The amount of livestock plundered by the Israelites seems considerable, as well as the number of captive virgins. How wonderful that it was all recorded so precisely and deemed important enough to pass down hundred and hundreds of years so that the chroniclers of the Bible could include it in their narrative, which, on the other hand, gives no description at all about the military engagements that must have been a part of the Israelite-Midianite War. Surprisingly, there is no account of the number of Midianites killed in battle or the captive women and boys who were liquidated. All in all, though, it was the total destruction of a society, a complete genocide, save that Midianite DNA would be passed down through the children of the captive and soon-to-be-no-longer virgins. Ancient man had no concept of genetics, and it was a commonly held belief that a child was derived from the father alone. While this is contrary to even superficial observation -- children take after their mothers as much as their fathers -- this belief supported the view that the extermination of a tribe or nation could be accomplished merely by killing all its male members. It never seemed to dawn upon conquerors that when they were raping and having children by the women of the people they had conquered they were continuing the blood line of their enemy, even if the mixed offspring that resulted from such liaisons would be accepted and reared as a member of the father's ethnic group.
2. The fate of the captive virgins is not mentioned. Would they all become slaves or maybe concubines, even wives? Those given as tribute to the misogynistic Jehovah, were they to become servants to the priests or did a grimmer fate await them -- human sacrifices?
3. The Israelites were enriched exceedingly by their war with the Midianites. Since they were basically nomadic herdsman wandering in areas that were mostly deserts, the Israelites could have had little opportunity to increase their wealth. They were engaged in no manufacture and little trade. Their society and its mentor, Jehovah, did nothing to encourage the pursuit of knowledge, the acquisition of new crafts, even constructive relationships with their neighbors, so really the only way they could acquire wealth was to steal it from the people they would kill or conquer.
4. The army commanders gratefully donate to Jehovah all the gold they have looted, since during the war they have suffered no fatalities. Really! Their untrained army of tribal recruits killed every last Midianite and yet loss not one of their number? You would have thought that even one of Jethro's now aged daughters could have managed to dispatch at least one Israelite!
5. The gold, 16,750 shekels, amounted to 420 pounds, and since it was all in crafted articles, pieces of jewelry and so forth it would have greater value than just its weight in gold. It is not entirely clear, but it seems that the common soldiers kept their share of the loot, while the officers denoted their share of gold artifacts to Jehovah.
War Against the Midianites
(Book of Numbers 31:1 - 31:24)
Jehovah told Moses, "For the sake of the Israelites you must take revenge upon the Midianites. After that, you may join your ancestors."
Moses ordered his people, "Recruit a troop of men and arm them so that they can execute Jehovah's vengeance upon the Midianites. Send into battle 1000 fighting men from each of the tribes of Israel."
And so the clans supplied 12,000 fighting men, 1000 from each of the tribes of Israel. Moses sent them into battle, the 1000 from each tribe, along with Phinehas son the Eleazar the priest, who took with him several sacred articles from the Sanctum as well as trumpets to sound the attack. As Jehovah had commanded Moses, they waged war against the Midianites and killed them to a man. Among the dead were the five kings of Midian, Evi, Rekem, Zur, Hur, and Reba. Also fallen by the sword was Balaam son of Beor. The army of Israel then captured all the Midianite women and children and seized as plunder the Midianite herds and flocks as well as all their valuables. Every town where the Midianites lived, all their camps and settlements were burned to the ground. The Israelite army gathered together their spoils and all they had plundered, including captives and livestock, and transported them back to Moses, Eleazar the priest, and the entire congregation of Israel that was encamped on the plains of Moab across the River Jordan from Jericho. Moses, Eleazar the priest, and the tribal leaders went to greet them outside of camp.
Moses, though, was angry with the generals and captains who returned from battle. "Why have you let all the women live?" he questioned. "These are the very women who, at the urging of Balaam, made the Israelites betray Jehovah at Peor and caused the plague that raged against the people of Jehovah. Kill all the boys and all the women who have had sex with a man. You may spare the young girls who are still virgins. You can keep them for yourselves!
"Anyone who has killed someone or who has touched a dead body must remain outside of camp for 7 days. On the 3rd and 7th days you must purify yourselves and your captives. Purify every garment and every article of leather, goat hair, or wood."
Eleazar the priest told the soldiers who had gone into battle, "The law that Jehovah has given Moses demands that metals, gold, silver, bronze, iron, tin, and lead, anything that will not burn, must be passed through the fire in order to be ritually pure, although to be completely purified they must also be cleansed by water. What cannot withstand fire must pass through the cleansing water. On the 7th day you must wash your clothes, and then you will be ritually pure once again. After that, may you reenter camp."
Notes
1. The war against the Midianites seems less in the Israelite interests than a means of avenging Jehovah and mollifying his wounded pride. No quarter was given, and the war was all but genocidal. All the men are killed and later all the captive boys were exterminated. The women are also killed and the virgins are given over to the men, presumably to use as they wished, probably to be raped and abused as sex slaves -- the custom, as you know, in ancient times. Captives of war ceased to be human beings; they were merely property. Most slaves at this time had been captives of war.
2. As a result of his conduct as the leader of Israelites in the Midianite war Moses can proudly add to his resume the title of war criminal, although, to be fair, in ancient times the concept scarcely existed. We would not expect the early Israelites to embrace the principles of honorable combat espoused by the later Romans. Still, Moses exhibits greater brutality than even the ruthless Assyrians generally exercised. "Love your enemy, forgive your enemy" are precepts of Christianity that have not yet supplanted the Old Testament exhortation to "hate your enemy and destroy him utterly without mercy or compassion and with no consideration for justice or humanity."
3. The requirement for ritual purity comes into play after the war when the returning soldiers more or less go into quarantine for a week. (It's as if they've come back from a trip to moon.) One imagines, though, that the purification ceremony allowed the soldiers to ease their transition back into what we would call civilian life and to feel justified in the brutal acts they have just committed.
4. Moses seems to have few qualms about completely exterminating his wife's tribe. Is his wife, Sephora, a Midianite, still alive and, if so, what is her view of this war? Sephora does not seem to be a factor during the Exodus, except, at one point, when she, a "foreigner" becomes a reason for the people to rebel against Moses. The authors certainly give her short shrift. Miriam, Moses' sister, seems to be the only woman who had political influence -- and that is presented in a negative light.
Jehovah told Moses, "For the sake of the Israelites you must take revenge upon the Midianites. After that, you may join your ancestors."
Moses ordered his people, "Recruit a troop of men and arm them so that they can execute Jehovah's vengeance upon the Midianites. Send into battle 1000 fighting men from each of the tribes of Israel."
And so the clans supplied 12,000 fighting men, 1000 from each of the tribes of Israel. Moses sent them into battle, the 1000 from each tribe, along with Phinehas son the Eleazar the priest, who took with him several sacred articles from the Sanctum as well as trumpets to sound the attack. As Jehovah had commanded Moses, they waged war against the Midianites and killed them to a man. Among the dead were the five kings of Midian, Evi, Rekem, Zur, Hur, and Reba. Also fallen by the sword was Balaam son of Beor. The army of Israel then captured all the Midianite women and children and seized as plunder the Midianite herds and flocks as well as all their valuables. Every town where the Midianites lived, all their camps and settlements were burned to the ground. The Israelite army gathered together their spoils and all they had plundered, including captives and livestock, and transported them back to Moses, Eleazar the priest, and the entire congregation of Israel that was encamped on the plains of Moab across the River Jordan from Jericho. Moses, Eleazar the priest, and the tribal leaders went to greet them outside of camp.
Moses, though, was angry with the generals and captains who returned from battle. "Why have you let all the women live?" he questioned. "These are the very women who, at the urging of Balaam, made the Israelites betray Jehovah at Peor and caused the plague that raged against the people of Jehovah. Kill all the boys and all the women who have had sex with a man. You may spare the young girls who are still virgins. You can keep them for yourselves!
"Anyone who has killed someone or who has touched a dead body must remain outside of camp for 7 days. On the 3rd and 7th days you must purify yourselves and your captives. Purify every garment and every article of leather, goat hair, or wood."
Eleazar the priest told the soldiers who had gone into battle, "The law that Jehovah has given Moses demands that metals, gold, silver, bronze, iron, tin, and lead, anything that will not burn, must be passed through the fire in order to be ritually pure, although to be completely purified they must also be cleansed by water. What cannot withstand fire must pass through the cleansing water. On the 7th day you must wash your clothes, and then you will be ritually pure once again. After that, may you reenter camp."
Notes
1. The war against the Midianites seems less in the Israelite interests than a means of avenging Jehovah and mollifying his wounded pride. No quarter was given, and the war was all but genocidal. All the men are killed and later all the captive boys were exterminated. The women are also killed and the virgins are given over to the men, presumably to use as they wished, probably to be raped and abused as sex slaves -- the custom, as you know, in ancient times. Captives of war ceased to be human beings; they were merely property. Most slaves at this time had been captives of war.
2. As a result of his conduct as the leader of Israelites in the Midianite war Moses can proudly add to his resume the title of war criminal, although, to be fair, in ancient times the concept scarcely existed. We would not expect the early Israelites to embrace the principles of honorable combat espoused by the later Romans. Still, Moses exhibits greater brutality than even the ruthless Assyrians generally exercised. "Love your enemy, forgive your enemy" are precepts of Christianity that have not yet supplanted the Old Testament exhortation to "hate your enemy and destroy him utterly without mercy or compassion and with no consideration for justice or humanity."
3. The requirement for ritual purity comes into play after the war when the returning soldiers more or less go into quarantine for a week. (It's as if they've come back from a trip to moon.) One imagines, though, that the purification ceremony allowed the soldiers to ease their transition back into what we would call civilian life and to feel justified in the brutal acts they have just committed.
4. Moses seems to have few qualms about completely exterminating his wife's tribe. Is his wife, Sephora, a Midianite, still alive and, if so, what is her view of this war? Sephora does not seem to be a factor during the Exodus, except, at one point, when she, a "foreigner" becomes a reason for the people to rebel against Moses. The authors certainly give her short shrift. Miriam, Moses' sister, seems to be the only woman who had political influence -- and that is presented in a negative light.
Saturday, July 11, 2015
Vows Made By Women
(Book of Numbers 30:1 - 30:16)
Moses told the tribal leaders of Israel, "This is what Jehovah has commanded: When a man makes a vow to Jehovah or a promise under oath, he must never break it. He must follow through on what he has pledged.
"When a young woman who is living in her father's home makes a vow to Jehovah or obligates herself with a pledge and her father learns of it and does not object to it, then the vow or pledge remains in force. However, if the father, when he learns of the vow or pledge, disapproves of it, then she is no longer obligated by the vow or pledge she has made: Jehovah will release her obligation owing to the disapproval of her father.
"If, after she makes a vow or binds herself by a rash or thoughtless pledge, a woman marries and her husband learns of it and does not object, then the vow or pledge remains in force. If, however, when the husband learns of it, he repudiates the vow or pledge, then the wife's commitment is nullified: Jehovah will release her. (But a widowed or divorced woman must fulfill all the vows and pledges she has made.)
"If a woman is married and living in her husband's home when she makes a vow or pledge, it will remain in force if the husband learns of it and does not object to it. But if her husband rejects it when he learns of it, then the vow or pledge will be nullified: Jehovah will release her. Thus a woman's husband may confirm or nullify any vow or any pledge of self-denial. But if he does not object to a vow or pledge at the time that he learns of it, then he is giving his approval to all the vows and pledges by which she has bound herself. (His silence upon learning of them is sufficient to constitute consent.) --- If, however, he tries to nullify a vow or pledge well after he has learned of it, then he will assume her guilt in not fulfilling it."
These are the laws Jehovah conveyed to Moses concerning relationships between a man and his wife and between a young daughter and her father when she still lives with him.
Notes
1. Not surprisingly, biblical law, well in line with legal thought prevalent up until modern times, regards woman as more or less a ward of her father or husband and is empowered to do little without his consent. The daughter and the wife are not only dependent upon the dominant male, but must defer to him in matters that touch upon morality and honor, such as keeping an oath. It is strongly implied that the woman is not the moral equal of men, but, for the most part, on the level of an underage child who lacks the maturity to make competent, sensible, and reasoned ethical decisions. Compared to a man, her judgment is inferior, her moral sense is flawed, her word carries far less weight. To be fair, it is unlikely that, until recently, many men believed differently. (One can only speculate upon the negative impact a dutiful adherence to biblical pronouncements, which, by and large, reflect an ancient and often primitive mindset, has had through history upon the progress of equity, if not equality in gender relations, particularly upon the status and advancement of women.)
2. It is strange that Jehovah should give the Israelites these particular commandments at this particular time, 40 years after the Exodus. It seems as if someone forgot to include this section in Leviticus and inserted it here for no real reason. But Jehovah’s laws and commandments are sporadically sprinkled through the Books of Moses, oddly punctuating the narrative. Indeed, at this point the reader is justified in thinking that Moses should already be dead.
Moses told the tribal leaders of Israel, "This is what Jehovah has commanded: When a man makes a vow to Jehovah or a promise under oath, he must never break it. He must follow through on what he has pledged.
"When a young woman who is living in her father's home makes a vow to Jehovah or obligates herself with a pledge and her father learns of it and does not object to it, then the vow or pledge remains in force. However, if the father, when he learns of the vow or pledge, disapproves of it, then she is no longer obligated by the vow or pledge she has made: Jehovah will release her obligation owing to the disapproval of her father.
"If, after she makes a vow or binds herself by a rash or thoughtless pledge, a woman marries and her husband learns of it and does not object, then the vow or pledge remains in force. If, however, when the husband learns of it, he repudiates the vow or pledge, then the wife's commitment is nullified: Jehovah will release her. (But a widowed or divorced woman must fulfill all the vows and pledges she has made.)
"If a woman is married and living in her husband's home when she makes a vow or pledge, it will remain in force if the husband learns of it and does not object to it. But if her husband rejects it when he learns of it, then the vow or pledge will be nullified: Jehovah will release her. Thus a woman's husband may confirm or nullify any vow or any pledge of self-denial. But if he does not object to a vow or pledge at the time that he learns of it, then he is giving his approval to all the vows and pledges by which she has bound herself. (His silence upon learning of them is sufficient to constitute consent.) --- If, however, he tries to nullify a vow or pledge well after he has learned of it, then he will assume her guilt in not fulfilling it."
These are the laws Jehovah conveyed to Moses concerning relationships between a man and his wife and between a young daughter and her father when she still lives with him.
Notes
1. Not surprisingly, biblical law, well in line with legal thought prevalent up until modern times, regards woman as more or less a ward of her father or husband and is empowered to do little without his consent. The daughter and the wife are not only dependent upon the dominant male, but must defer to him in matters that touch upon morality and honor, such as keeping an oath. It is strongly implied that the woman is not the moral equal of men, but, for the most part, on the level of an underage child who lacks the maturity to make competent, sensible, and reasoned ethical decisions. Compared to a man, her judgment is inferior, her moral sense is flawed, her word carries far less weight. To be fair, it is unlikely that, until recently, many men believed differently. (One can only speculate upon the negative impact a dutiful adherence to biblical pronouncements, which, by and large, reflect an ancient and often primitive mindset, has had through history upon the progress of equity, if not equality in gender relations, particularly upon the status and advancement of women.)
2. It is strange that Jehovah should give the Israelites these particular commandments at this particular time, 40 years after the Exodus. It seems as if someone forgot to include this section in Leviticus and inserted it here for no real reason. But Jehovah’s laws and commandments are sporadically sprinkled through the Books of Moses, oddly punctuating the narrative. Indeed, at this point the reader is justified in thinking that Moses should already be dead.
Friday, July 10, 2015
Festival Offerings
(Book of Numbers 28:16 - 29:40)
"On the 14th day of the first month, Nisan, Jehovah's Passover is to be observed. On the 15th day of the month a festival is to be held and for the next 7 days only unleavened bread is to be eaten. On the first day a a sacred assembly will be held and no regular work is to be done. You should make a burnt offering to Jehovah consisting of two young bulls, one ram, and 7 male yearling lambs, all without defect, accompanied by a grain offering of the finest flour mixed with oil -- three-tenths of an ephah for each bull, two-tenths of an ephah for the ram, and one-tenth of an ephah for each lamb. Also, there should be sacrificed a male goat as a sin offering to make your atonement. These sacrifices should be made in addition to the regular morning burnt offering. For 7 days these sacrifices should be made so that the food of the burnt offerings will create an aroma pleasing to Jehovah. They should be presented in addition to the regular burnt offerings and the accompanying drink offerings. On the 7th day a sacred assembly will be held with no occupational work done.
"On the day of the Harvest Festival, when you present to Jehovah an offering from the first harvest of grain, hold a sacred assemble and refrain from all occupational work. Present a burnt offering of two young bulls, a ram, and 7 male yearling lambs to create an aroma pleasing to Jehovah. Accompanying each burnt offering there should be a grain offering of the finest flour mixed with oil, three-tenths of an ephah for each bull, two-tenths of an ephah for the ram, and one-tenth of an ephah for each lamb. In addition, a male goat should be sacrificed as a sin offering to make atonement. Present these burnt offerings along with their accompanying drink offerings in addition to the regular burnt and grain offerings. Take care that all the animals have no defects!
"On the 1st day of the 7th month, Tishri, you should hold a sacred assemble and do no occupational work. This is a day for you to sound trumpets! To create an aroma pleasing to Jehovah, make a burnt offering of two young bulls, one ram, and 7 male yearling lambs, all without defect. An accompanying grain offering of the finest flour mixed with oil should consist of three-tenths of an ephah for each bull, two-tenths of an ephah for the ram, and one-tenth of an ephah for each lamb. To make atonement for you, include a sin offering of one male goat. This is in addition to the monthly burnt offering and the accompanying grain offering, as well as the daily burnt offering with its prescribed grain and drink offerings. These food offerings will create an aroma pleasing to Jehovah.
"Ten days later, on the 10th day of the same month you must convene another sacred assembly. You must fast and refrain from any occupational work. Present a burnt offering of two young bulls, one ram, and 7 male yearling lambs, all without defect. With the bull include a grain offering of three-tenths of an ephah of the finest flour mixed with oil, with the ram two-tenths of an ephah, and with the lambs, one-tenth of an ephah. You must sacrifice as a sin offering one male goat. This is in addition to the regular sin offering made for atonement and the daily burnt offering with the accompanying grain and drink offerings.
"Five days later, on the 10th of the same month you must convene another sacred assembly. You must fast and refrain from occupational work. Present a burnt offering that will create an aroma pleasing to Jehovah, one young bull, one ram, and 7 male yearling lambs, all without defects. Accompanying these offerings should be the prescribed grain offerings, consisting of the finest flour mixed with olive oil, three-tenths of an ephah for each bull, two-tenths of an ephah for the ram, and one-tenth of an ephah for each lamb. Also there should be a sin offering of a goat, in addition to the sin offering of atonement and the regular burnt offerings with the accompanying grain and drink offerings.
"On the 15th day of the 7th month convene a sacred assembly and do no occupational work. During the next 7 days celebrate a festival to Jehovah. To create an aroma pleasing to him, present burnt offerings consisting of 13 young bulls, 2 rams, and 14 male yearling lambs, all without blemish, along with a grain offering of the finest flour mixed with oil, three-tenths of an ephah for each of the bulls, two-tenths of an ephah for each of the rams, and one-tenth of an ephah for each of the lambs. Also, there should be a male goat as a sin offering. These are in addition to the regular burnt offering and the accompanying grain and drink offering.
"On the 2nd day sacrifice 12 young bulls, 2 rams, and 14 male yearling lambs, all without defect. With the bulls, rams, and lambs make the prescribed grain and drink offerings. A male goat should also be sacrificed as a sin offering. These are in addition to the regular burnt offering and the accompanying grain and drink offerings.
"On the 3rd day sacrifice 11 young bulls, 2 rams, and 14 male yearling lambs, all without defect. With the bulls, rams, and lambs make the prescribed grain and drink offerings. A male goat should also be sacrificed as a sin offering. These are in addition to the regular burnt offering and the accompanying grain and drink offerings.
"On the 4th day sacrifice 10 young bulls, 2 rams, and 14 male yearling lambs, all without defect. With the bulls, rams, and lambs make the prescribed grain and drink offerings. A male goat should also be sacrificed as a sin offering. These are in addition to the regular burnt offering and the accompanying grain and drink offerings.
"On the 5th day sacrifice 9 young bulls, 2 rams, and 14 male yearling lambs, all without defect. With the bulls, rams, and lambs make the prescribed grain and drink offerings. A male goat should also be sacrificed as a sin offering. These are in addition to the regular burnt offering and the accompanying grain and drink offerings.
"On the 6th day sacrifice 8 young bulls, 2 rams, and 14 male yearling lambs, all without defect. With the bulls, rams, and lambs make the prescribed grain and drink offerings. A male goat should also be sacrificed as a sin offering. These are in addition to the regular burnt offering and the accompanying grain and drink offerings.
"On the 7th day sacrifice 7 young bulls, 2 rams, and 14 male yearling lambs, all without defect. With the bulls, rams, and lambs make the prescribed grain and drink offerings. A male goat should also be sacrificed as a sin offering. These are in addition to the regular burnt offering and the accompanying grain and drink offerings.
"On the 8th day conclude by convening a sacred assembly and refraining from occupational work. To create an aroma pleasing to Jehovah present a burnt offering consisting of one young bull, one ram, and 7 male yearling lambs, all with no defects. Each sacrifice should be accompanied by the prescribed grain and drink offerings. And you must sacrifice a male goat as a sin offering, this in addition to the regular burnt offering and its accompanying grain and drink offering.
"You must make these offerings to Jehovah at the yearly festivals. These sacrifices, burnt offerings, grain offerings, drink offerings, and peace offerings, are in addition to the votive and voluntary offering you may make."
Moses conveyed to the Israelites all that he had been commanded by Jehovah.
Notes
1. The impression is given that holidays to the Israelites were mostly about the slaughter of animals, the primary means of divine worship.
2. The festivals mentioned here are referred to in Leviticus, the 23rd chapter, "Festivals to be Observed." Passover, on the 14th of Nisan, occurs in spring, as is well known. The Harvest Festival (Festival of Weeks, Feast of Pentecost, or Shabuoth) occurred when the first crops were harvested and samples of them sacrificed to Jehovah. The blowing of trumpets on the 1st of Tishri in early autumn celebrated what is now known as Rosh Hashanah, the Jewish New Year. (Tishri is the 7th month of the Hebrew religious calendar, but the 1st month of the civil calendar.) On the 10th of Tishri was and is the Day of Atonement, Yom Kippur. The 15th of Tishri is the beginning of the Festival of Tabernacles (or Festival of Booths, originally Festival of Ingathering or Festival of the Final Harvest and is generally now known as Sukkot or Succoth).
3. An ephah is a unit of dry measure equal to about 19 U.S. dry quarts or 69 cups (as those used in cooking). Therefore one tenth of an ephah is about 7 cups, two tenths is a little less than 14 cups, three tenths, 21 cups. Many different values are given for the ephah, but this seems the most likely.
"On the 14th day of the first month, Nisan, Jehovah's Passover is to be observed. On the 15th day of the month a festival is to be held and for the next 7 days only unleavened bread is to be eaten. On the first day a a sacred assembly will be held and no regular work is to be done. You should make a burnt offering to Jehovah consisting of two young bulls, one ram, and 7 male yearling lambs, all without defect, accompanied by a grain offering of the finest flour mixed with oil -- three-tenths of an ephah for each bull, two-tenths of an ephah for the ram, and one-tenth of an ephah for each lamb. Also, there should be sacrificed a male goat as a sin offering to make your atonement. These sacrifices should be made in addition to the regular morning burnt offering. For 7 days these sacrifices should be made so that the food of the burnt offerings will create an aroma pleasing to Jehovah. They should be presented in addition to the regular burnt offerings and the accompanying drink offerings. On the 7th day a sacred assembly will be held with no occupational work done.
"On the day of the Harvest Festival, when you present to Jehovah an offering from the first harvest of grain, hold a sacred assemble and refrain from all occupational work. Present a burnt offering of two young bulls, a ram, and 7 male yearling lambs to create an aroma pleasing to Jehovah. Accompanying each burnt offering there should be a grain offering of the finest flour mixed with oil, three-tenths of an ephah for each bull, two-tenths of an ephah for the ram, and one-tenth of an ephah for each lamb. In addition, a male goat should be sacrificed as a sin offering to make atonement. Present these burnt offerings along with their accompanying drink offerings in addition to the regular burnt and grain offerings. Take care that all the animals have no defects!
"On the 1st day of the 7th month, Tishri, you should hold a sacred assemble and do no occupational work. This is a day for you to sound trumpets! To create an aroma pleasing to Jehovah, make a burnt offering of two young bulls, one ram, and 7 male yearling lambs, all without defect. An accompanying grain offering of the finest flour mixed with oil should consist of three-tenths of an ephah for each bull, two-tenths of an ephah for the ram, and one-tenth of an ephah for each lamb. To make atonement for you, include a sin offering of one male goat. This is in addition to the monthly burnt offering and the accompanying grain offering, as well as the daily burnt offering with its prescribed grain and drink offerings. These food offerings will create an aroma pleasing to Jehovah.
"Ten days later, on the 10th day of the same month you must convene another sacred assembly. You must fast and refrain from any occupational work. Present a burnt offering of two young bulls, one ram, and 7 male yearling lambs, all without defect. With the bull include a grain offering of three-tenths of an ephah of the finest flour mixed with oil, with the ram two-tenths of an ephah, and with the lambs, one-tenth of an ephah. You must sacrifice as a sin offering one male goat. This is in addition to the regular sin offering made for atonement and the daily burnt offering with the accompanying grain and drink offerings.
"Five days later, on the 10th of the same month you must convene another sacred assembly. You must fast and refrain from occupational work. Present a burnt offering that will create an aroma pleasing to Jehovah, one young bull, one ram, and 7 male yearling lambs, all without defects. Accompanying these offerings should be the prescribed grain offerings, consisting of the finest flour mixed with olive oil, three-tenths of an ephah for each bull, two-tenths of an ephah for the ram, and one-tenth of an ephah for each lamb. Also there should be a sin offering of a goat, in addition to the sin offering of atonement and the regular burnt offerings with the accompanying grain and drink offerings.
"On the 15th day of the 7th month convene a sacred assembly and do no occupational work. During the next 7 days celebrate a festival to Jehovah. To create an aroma pleasing to him, present burnt offerings consisting of 13 young bulls, 2 rams, and 14 male yearling lambs, all without blemish, along with a grain offering of the finest flour mixed with oil, three-tenths of an ephah for each of the bulls, two-tenths of an ephah for each of the rams, and one-tenth of an ephah for each of the lambs. Also, there should be a male goat as a sin offering. These are in addition to the regular burnt offering and the accompanying grain and drink offering.
"On the 2nd day sacrifice 12 young bulls, 2 rams, and 14 male yearling lambs, all without defect. With the bulls, rams, and lambs make the prescribed grain and drink offerings. A male goat should also be sacrificed as a sin offering. These are in addition to the regular burnt offering and the accompanying grain and drink offerings.
"On the 3rd day sacrifice 11 young bulls, 2 rams, and 14 male yearling lambs, all without defect. With the bulls, rams, and lambs make the prescribed grain and drink offerings. A male goat should also be sacrificed as a sin offering. These are in addition to the regular burnt offering and the accompanying grain and drink offerings.
"On the 4th day sacrifice 10 young bulls, 2 rams, and 14 male yearling lambs, all without defect. With the bulls, rams, and lambs make the prescribed grain and drink offerings. A male goat should also be sacrificed as a sin offering. These are in addition to the regular burnt offering and the accompanying grain and drink offerings.
"On the 5th day sacrifice 9 young bulls, 2 rams, and 14 male yearling lambs, all without defect. With the bulls, rams, and lambs make the prescribed grain and drink offerings. A male goat should also be sacrificed as a sin offering. These are in addition to the regular burnt offering and the accompanying grain and drink offerings.
"On the 6th day sacrifice 8 young bulls, 2 rams, and 14 male yearling lambs, all without defect. With the bulls, rams, and lambs make the prescribed grain and drink offerings. A male goat should also be sacrificed as a sin offering. These are in addition to the regular burnt offering and the accompanying grain and drink offerings.
"On the 7th day sacrifice 7 young bulls, 2 rams, and 14 male yearling lambs, all without defect. With the bulls, rams, and lambs make the prescribed grain and drink offerings. A male goat should also be sacrificed as a sin offering. These are in addition to the regular burnt offering and the accompanying grain and drink offerings.
"On the 8th day conclude by convening a sacred assembly and refraining from occupational work. To create an aroma pleasing to Jehovah present a burnt offering consisting of one young bull, one ram, and 7 male yearling lambs, all with no defects. Each sacrifice should be accompanied by the prescribed grain and drink offerings. And you must sacrifice a male goat as a sin offering, this in addition to the regular burnt offering and its accompanying grain and drink offering.
"You must make these offerings to Jehovah at the yearly festivals. These sacrifices, burnt offerings, grain offerings, drink offerings, and peace offerings, are in addition to the votive and voluntary offering you may make."
Moses conveyed to the Israelites all that he had been commanded by Jehovah.
Notes
1. The impression is given that holidays to the Israelites were mostly about the slaughter of animals, the primary means of divine worship.
2. The festivals mentioned here are referred to in Leviticus, the 23rd chapter, "Festivals to be Observed." Passover, on the 14th of Nisan, occurs in spring, as is well known. The Harvest Festival (Festival of Weeks, Feast of Pentecost, or Shabuoth) occurred when the first crops were harvested and samples of them sacrificed to Jehovah. The blowing of trumpets on the 1st of Tishri in early autumn celebrated what is now known as Rosh Hashanah, the Jewish New Year. (Tishri is the 7th month of the Hebrew religious calendar, but the 1st month of the civil calendar.) On the 10th of Tishri was and is the Day of Atonement, Yom Kippur. The 15th of Tishri is the beginning of the Festival of Tabernacles (or Festival of Booths, originally Festival of Ingathering or Festival of the Final Harvest and is generally now known as Sukkot or Succoth).
3. An ephah is a unit of dry measure equal to about 19 U.S. dry quarts or 69 cups (as those used in cooking). Therefore one tenth of an ephah is about 7 cups, two tenths is a little less than 14 cups, three tenths, 21 cups. Many different values are given for the ephah, but this seems the most likely.
Regular Offerings
(Book of Numbers 28:1 - 28:15)
Jehovah told Moses to give these instructions to the Israelites: "Take care to make burnt offerings at the proper times, for they create an aroma that is pleasing to me. Tell them that every day they should make a regular burnt offering; two male yearling lambs without defect should be sacrificed to Jehovah. One lamb should be sacrificed in the morning, the other at sundown, along with a grain offering of one-tenth of an ephah of the finest flour mixed with a quarter of a hin of oil from pressed olives. This is the daily sacrifice made customary at the mountain in Sinai, a burnt offering of food to create an aroma pleasing to Jehovah. Its accompanying drink offering, a quarter of a hin for each sacrificed lamb, should be strong wine poured out in the Sanctum as an offering to Jehovah. The other lamb should be sacrificed at sundown with the same grain and drink offering as the one sacrificed in the morning; it should be a burnt offering creating an aroma pleasing to Jehovah.
"On the Sabbath the sacrifice should be two male yearling lambs offered with two-tenths of an ephah of the finest flour mixed with olive oil, along with the drink offering. This is the burnt offering that must be made on the Sabbath in addition to the regular burnt and drink offerings.
"On the first day of each month present a burnt offering to Jehovah of two young bulls, one ram, and 7 male yearling lambs, all without defect, with three-tenths of an ephah of the finest flour mixed with oil as a grain offering for each bull, two-tenths of an ephah of the finest flour mixed with oil as a grain offering for the ram, one-tenth of an ephah of the finest flour mixed with oil as a grain offering for each lamb; these will be burnt offerings that will create an aroma pleasing to Jehovah. The drink offerings will be a half a hin of wine for each bull, one-third of a hin for the ram, and a quarter of a hin for each of the lambs. This is the burnt offering that should be made on the first of every month. But, in addition to the regular burnt offering and drink offerings, one male goat should be sacrificed to Jehovah as a sin offering.
Notes
1. An ephah is a unit of dry measure equal to about 19 U.S. dry quarts or 69 cups (as those used in cooking). Therefore one-tenth of an ephah is about 7 cups, two-tenths is a little less than 14 cups, three-tenths, 21 cups. Many different values are given for the ephah, but this seems the most likely.
2. A hin, a liquid measure, is about nine-tenths of a gallon, therefore, a quarter of a hin is about nine-tenths of a quart, a third of a hin is 1 1/4 quarts, and a half a hin, 1 and eight-tenths of a quart.
3. One assumes that the sacrificed animals would furnish meat for the priestly class. There would be plenty of mouths to feed since just the male Levites supposedly numbered 23,000.
Jehovah told Moses to give these instructions to the Israelites: "Take care to make burnt offerings at the proper times, for they create an aroma that is pleasing to me. Tell them that every day they should make a regular burnt offering; two male yearling lambs without defect should be sacrificed to Jehovah. One lamb should be sacrificed in the morning, the other at sundown, along with a grain offering of one-tenth of an ephah of the finest flour mixed with a quarter of a hin of oil from pressed olives. This is the daily sacrifice made customary at the mountain in Sinai, a burnt offering of food to create an aroma pleasing to Jehovah. Its accompanying drink offering, a quarter of a hin for each sacrificed lamb, should be strong wine poured out in the Sanctum as an offering to Jehovah. The other lamb should be sacrificed at sundown with the same grain and drink offering as the one sacrificed in the morning; it should be a burnt offering creating an aroma pleasing to Jehovah.
"On the Sabbath the sacrifice should be two male yearling lambs offered with two-tenths of an ephah of the finest flour mixed with olive oil, along with the drink offering. This is the burnt offering that must be made on the Sabbath in addition to the regular burnt and drink offerings.
"On the first day of each month present a burnt offering to Jehovah of two young bulls, one ram, and 7 male yearling lambs, all without defect, with three-tenths of an ephah of the finest flour mixed with oil as a grain offering for each bull, two-tenths of an ephah of the finest flour mixed with oil as a grain offering for the ram, one-tenth of an ephah of the finest flour mixed with oil as a grain offering for each lamb; these will be burnt offerings that will create an aroma pleasing to Jehovah. The drink offerings will be a half a hin of wine for each bull, one-third of a hin for the ram, and a quarter of a hin for each of the lambs. This is the burnt offering that should be made on the first of every month. But, in addition to the regular burnt offering and drink offerings, one male goat should be sacrificed to Jehovah as a sin offering.
Notes
1. An ephah is a unit of dry measure equal to about 19 U.S. dry quarts or 69 cups (as those used in cooking). Therefore one-tenth of an ephah is about 7 cups, two-tenths is a little less than 14 cups, three-tenths, 21 cups. Many different values are given for the ephah, but this seems the most likely.
2. A hin, a liquid measure, is about nine-tenths of a gallon, therefore, a quarter of a hin is about nine-tenths of a quart, a third of a hin is 1 1/4 quarts, and a half a hin, 1 and eight-tenths of a quart.
3. One assumes that the sacrificed animals would furnish meat for the priestly class. There would be plenty of mouths to feed since just the male Levites supposedly numbered 23,000.
Saturday, July 4, 2015
Joshua Chosen as Moses' Successor
(Book of Numbers 27:12 - 27:23)
Jehovah told Moses, "Go climb one of the Abarim mountains east of the Jordan River and gaze out upon the land I am giving to the children of Israel. After you have done so, you will join your ancestors, as your brother Aaron did -- for both of you defied my will at the waters in the desert of Zin. When the people of Israel revolted, you did not convince them to respect my power." (This occurred at the oasis of Meribah at Kadesh in the desert of Zin.)
Moses replied, "O Jehovah, the god who breathes life into all creatures, pick someone who can take charge of the congregation, lead the flock out to pasture and bring them back, so that the people of Jehovah may not be sheep without a shepherd."
Jehovah responded, “Choose Joshua son of Nun. He has the proper spirit in him. Lay your hand upon him. Have him stand before Eleazar and the entire community, and in their presence give Joshua your endorsement as the next leader of the people. Delegate some of your authority to him so the people will be used to obeying him. He may consult Eleazar the priest, who will seek divinations before the altar using the Urim. On Joshua’s orders the flock of Israel will go out and on his orders it will come in, he with the Israelites, the entire community.”
Moses did as Jehovah commanded him. He chose Joshua and presented him to Eleazar the priest and the entire congregation. Moses laid both his hands upon Joshua and formally endorsed him, according to the instructions he received from Jehovah.
Notes
1. It cannot be unexpected that Joshua has been selected as Moses' successor to shepherd the flock that is the people of Israel. Jehovah seems to be doing Moses a favor by allowing him to see the Promised Land before he dies. Jehovah still harbors hard feelings from Moses' conduct at the oasis of Meribah and insists upon punishing him for it as he did his brother Aaron. Moses has been a most faithful servant to Jehovah, but his god has treated him like a stooge or a dog to be kicked whenever he barks out of turn. Jehovah seems to have no words for his faithful servant, no praise, no expressions of gratitude or affection, no assurances about what may happen to him after he dies or what may happen to his people after he's gone, just a curt "you're gonna die."
2. The Urim and Thimmim, referenced in Exodus in the description of the priest's raiment, were probably amulets of some sort that may have been cast like dice to determine by divination Jehovah's will. Little is known for certain about them and there are many opinions as to what they were and how they were employed. Apparently they were to be consulted when Jehovah didn't have the time or inclination to visit the Inner Sanctum personally and sit on the Judgment Seat. The instructions, though, probably signal that Jehovah will not be speaking directly to Joshua as he had Moses, or at least not as often.
3. Although often the mention of laying on of hands is meant figuratively, here it seems to be literal. Moses is bid by Jehovah to lay his hand upon Joshua, a symbolic gesture of selection and endorsement. Moses does, in fact, lay both his hands upon Joshua. We may deduce from this that Joshua is not only Jehovah’s choice, but Moses’ choice as well. Moses had been Joshua’s mentor and he probably felt toward him as if he were his son. (No mention is made of Moses’ sons.) It is thus established that the civil and military leader of Israel will, for the present, not be an inherited position like the priesthood.
Jehovah told Moses, "Go climb one of the Abarim mountains east of the Jordan River and gaze out upon the land I am giving to the children of Israel. After you have done so, you will join your ancestors, as your brother Aaron did -- for both of you defied my will at the waters in the desert of Zin. When the people of Israel revolted, you did not convince them to respect my power." (This occurred at the oasis of Meribah at Kadesh in the desert of Zin.)
Moses replied, "O Jehovah, the god who breathes life into all creatures, pick someone who can take charge of the congregation, lead the flock out to pasture and bring them back, so that the people of Jehovah may not be sheep without a shepherd."
Jehovah responded, “Choose Joshua son of Nun. He has the proper spirit in him. Lay your hand upon him. Have him stand before Eleazar and the entire community, and in their presence give Joshua your endorsement as the next leader of the people. Delegate some of your authority to him so the people will be used to obeying him. He may consult Eleazar the priest, who will seek divinations before the altar using the Urim. On Joshua’s orders the flock of Israel will go out and on his orders it will come in, he with the Israelites, the entire community.”
Moses did as Jehovah commanded him. He chose Joshua and presented him to Eleazar the priest and the entire congregation. Moses laid both his hands upon Joshua and formally endorsed him, according to the instructions he received from Jehovah.
Notes
1. It cannot be unexpected that Joshua has been selected as Moses' successor to shepherd the flock that is the people of Israel. Jehovah seems to be doing Moses a favor by allowing him to see the Promised Land before he dies. Jehovah still harbors hard feelings from Moses' conduct at the oasis of Meribah and insists upon punishing him for it as he did his brother Aaron. Moses has been a most faithful servant to Jehovah, but his god has treated him like a stooge or a dog to be kicked whenever he barks out of turn. Jehovah seems to have no words for his faithful servant, no praise, no expressions of gratitude or affection, no assurances about what may happen to him after he dies or what may happen to his people after he's gone, just a curt "you're gonna die."
2. The Urim and Thimmim, referenced in Exodus in the description of the priest's raiment, were probably amulets of some sort that may have been cast like dice to determine by divination Jehovah's will. Little is known for certain about them and there are many opinions as to what they were and how they were employed. Apparently they were to be consulted when Jehovah didn't have the time or inclination to visit the Inner Sanctum personally and sit on the Judgment Seat. The instructions, though, probably signal that Jehovah will not be speaking directly to Joshua as he had Moses, or at least not as often.
3. Although often the mention of laying on of hands is meant figuratively, here it seems to be literal. Moses is bid by Jehovah to lay his hand upon Joshua, a symbolic gesture of selection and endorsement. Moses does, in fact, lay both his hands upon Joshua. We may deduce from this that Joshua is not only Jehovah’s choice, but Moses’ choice as well. Moses had been Joshua’s mentor and he probably felt toward him as if he were his son. (No mention is made of Moses’ sons.) It is thus established that the civil and military leader of Israel will, for the present, not be an inherited position like the priesthood.
Zelophedad's Daughters
(Book of Number 27:1 - 27:11)
A petition was presented by the daughters of Zelophedad son of Hepher (grandson of Gilead, great grandson of Makir, and great-great grandson of Manasseh son of Joseph). (The names of the daughters were Mahlah, Noah, Hoglah, Milkah, and Tirzah.) They made their case to Moses, Eleazar the priest, the tribal leaders, and the entire congregation before the entrance to the Tabernacle. "Our father died in the desert," they declared. "He was not among the followers of Korah who conspired against Jehovah, but died owing to his own sins. He left no sons behind. Why should the name of our father disappear from his family, just because he had no son? Grant us an inheritance along with our father's relatives."
Moses brought the case to Jehovah, who said to him, "The daughters of Zelophedad are justified in their claim. You should allow them to receive an inheritance along with their male relatives. Their father’s estate should pass to them. Tell the Israelites that if a man dies and leaves no son, his property should be inherited by his daughter. If he has no daughter, then his brothers should inherit. If he has no brothers, then his inheritance should be given to his father's brothers; failing that, the nearest relative in his clan shall take possession of his estate. This practice should have force of law among the Israelites as Jehovah has commanded Moses.
Notes
1. Inheritance is problematic in all societies. Sometimes the eldest son inherits everything, sometimes the estate is divided among the sons. Sometimes the daughters claim an inheritance, sometimes not. Here, we have set forth a pattern of inheritance similar to that practiced in medieval England. The English throne would pass to a daughter, if there were no sons, and to a brother, if there were no children. Thus, we have several English queens. (This rule has now been altered so that the eldest child, regardless of gender, inherits the throne.) In France, this was not the custom: only males inherited and, consequently, there has never been a French reigning monarch who was female. Among the old English nobility this practice was observed as well, with titles (created by writ) often being passed through the female line; as result, the surnames connected with the titles would change. By Tudor times, however, most titles were conferred through letters of patent and could pass only through the male line, thus diminishing the considerable power that noblewomen held during the Middle Ages.
2.Most ancient and Middle Eastern societies gave short shrift to women in terms of inheritance and were far less generous than the Hebrews. In many cultures, that of Arabia, for instance, widows would not inherit, but would be inherited. Islamic Shariah Law (introduced, of course, at a much later date) set out procedures for inheritance that greatly increased the status of women in this regard -- (surprised?).
A petition was presented by the daughters of Zelophedad son of Hepher (grandson of Gilead, great grandson of Makir, and great-great grandson of Manasseh son of Joseph). (The names of the daughters were Mahlah, Noah, Hoglah, Milkah, and Tirzah.) They made their case to Moses, Eleazar the priest, the tribal leaders, and the entire congregation before the entrance to the Tabernacle. "Our father died in the desert," they declared. "He was not among the followers of Korah who conspired against Jehovah, but died owing to his own sins. He left no sons behind. Why should the name of our father disappear from his family, just because he had no son? Grant us an inheritance along with our father's relatives."
Moses brought the case to Jehovah, who said to him, "The daughters of Zelophedad are justified in their claim. You should allow them to receive an inheritance along with their male relatives. Their father’s estate should pass to them. Tell the Israelites that if a man dies and leaves no son, his property should be inherited by his daughter. If he has no daughter, then his brothers should inherit. If he has no brothers, then his inheritance should be given to his father's brothers; failing that, the nearest relative in his clan shall take possession of his estate. This practice should have force of law among the Israelites as Jehovah has commanded Moses.
Notes
1. Inheritance is problematic in all societies. Sometimes the eldest son inherits everything, sometimes the estate is divided among the sons. Sometimes the daughters claim an inheritance, sometimes not. Here, we have set forth a pattern of inheritance similar to that practiced in medieval England. The English throne would pass to a daughter, if there were no sons, and to a brother, if there were no children. Thus, we have several English queens. (This rule has now been altered so that the eldest child, regardless of gender, inherits the throne.) In France, this was not the custom: only males inherited and, consequently, there has never been a French reigning monarch who was female. Among the old English nobility this practice was observed as well, with titles (created by writ) often being passed through the female line; as result, the surnames connected with the titles would change. By Tudor times, however, most titles were conferred through letters of patent and could pass only through the male line, thus diminishing the considerable power that noblewomen held during the Middle Ages.
2.Most ancient and Middle Eastern societies gave short shrift to women in terms of inheritance and were far less generous than the Hebrews. In many cultures, that of Arabia, for instance, widows would not inherit, but would be inherited. Islamic Shariah Law (introduced, of course, at a much later date) set out procedures for inheritance that greatly increased the status of women in this regard -- (surprised?).
The Second Census
(Book of Numbers 26:1 - 26:65)
After the plague had ended, Jehovah told Moses and Eleazar son of Aaron the priest, "Take a census of the entire Israelite community, family by family, recording all those men 20 years and above and able to bear arms."
Therefore, on the plains of Moab by the River Jordan, opposite the city of Jericho, Moses and Eleazar the priest instructed the elders of Israel to take a census of men above the age of 20, as Jehovah had commanded Moses.
The Israelites who had emigrated from Egypt were listed as follows:
Reuben, the firstborn of Israel, the clans descended from him and their ancestral founder,
Hanochites from Hanoch
Palluites from Pallu
Hezronites from Hezron
Carmites from Carmi
From the clans of Reuben were counted 43,730 men.
Pallu was the ancestor of Eliab, who was the father of Nemuel, Dathan, and Abiram. This was the same Dathan and Abiram, the tribal chiefs that joined Korah in his rebellion against Moses and Aaron, defying Jehovah. As a warning, the earth opened up and swallowed them along with Korah, while Korah's followers, 250 of them, were consumed by fire. (Korah's sons, however, were not killed at that time.)
Simeon:
Jemuelites from Jemuel
Jaminites from Jamin
Jakinites from Jakin
Zoharites from Zohar
Shaulites from Shaul
From the clans of Simeon were counted 22,200 men.
Gad:
Zephonites from Zephon
Haggites from Haggi
Shunites from Shuni
Oznites from Ozni
Erite from Eri
Arodite from Arodi
Arelite from Areli
From the clans of Gad were counted 40,500 men.
Judah (from his surviving sons, for he had two sons, Er and Onan, that died in Canaan):
Shelanites from Shelah
Perezites from Perez
Zerahites from Zerah
Hamulites from Hamul
From the clans of Judah were counted 76,500 men.
Issachar:
Tolaites from Tola
Puites from Puah
Jashubites from Jashub
Shimronites from Shimron
From the clans of Issachar were counted 64,300 men.
Zebulun:
Seredites from Sered
Elonites from Elon
Jahleelites from Jahleel
From the clans of Zebulun were counted 60,500 men.
Joseph, from the clans of Mannaseh and Ephraim:
Mannaseh:
Makirites from Makir, who was the father of Gilead
Gileadites from Gilead
Iezerites from Iezer, a descendant of Gilead
Helekites from Helek, a descendant of Gilead
Asrielites from Asriel
Shechemites from Shechem
Shemidaites from Shemida
Hepherites from Hepher
(Zelophedad, a son of Hepher, had no sons, only daughters, whose names were Mahlah, Noah, Hoglah, Milkah, and Tirzah.)
From the clans of Mannaseh were counted 52,700 men.
Ephraim:
Shuthelahites from Shuthelah
Eranites from Eran, descendant of Shuthelah
Bekerites from Beker
Tahanites from Tahan
From the clans of Ephraim were counted 32,500 men.
Such were the clans descended from Joseph.
Benjamin:
Belaites from Bela
Ardites from Ard, descendant of Bela
Naamites from Naaman, descendant of Bela
Ashbelites from Ashbel
Ahiramites from Ahiram
Shuphamites from Shupham
Huphamites from Hupham
From the clans of Benjamin were counted 45,600 men.
Dan:
Shuhamites from Shuham
From the clans of Dan were counted 64,400 men.
Asher:
Imnites from Imnah
Ishvites from Ishvi
Beriites from Beriah
Heberites from Heber, a descendant of Beriah
Malkielites from Malkiel, a descendant of Beriah
(Asher also had a daughter named Serah.)
From the clans of Asher were counted 53,400 men.
Naphtali:
Jahzeelites from Jahzeel
Gunites from Guni
Jezerites from Jezer
Shillemites from Shillem
From the clans of Naphtali were counted 45,400
In total, the number of Israelite men counted in the census numbered 601,730.
Jehovah instructed Moses, "Divide the land among the tribes and distribute it in accordance to the census and in proportion to each tribe's population. In other words, give the larger tribes more land, the smaller tribes less, each grant of land being in proportion to the size of the tribe receiving it. The land that is to be granted to each tribe will be determined by lot and in accordance with the census. All grants of land, to groups large and small within the tribes, will be determined by lot as well."
Levi:
Gershonites from Gershon
Kohathites from Kohath
Merarites from Merari
There were also Levite subclans, the Libnites, the Hebronites, the Mahlites, the Mushites, and Korahites.
(It may be mentioned that Kohath was the father of Amram; Amram's wife's name was Jochebed, also a descendant of Levi and born among the Levites in Egypt. Amram and Jochebed were the parents of Aaron, Moses, and their sister Miriam. To Aaron were born the sons Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar -- but Nabad and Abihu were killed before the altar when they offered a sacrificial fire from an unauthorized source.
Men a month old or more from the Levite clans numbered 23,000. However, the Levites were not included in the census itself with the rest of Israel's people, because they were to receive no allotment of land.
This is the result of the census when Moses and Eleazar the priest counted the Israelites on the plains of Moab by the River Jordan, opposite the city of Jericho. Not one of them was counted by Moses and Aaron the priest when they conducted the first census in the desert of Sinai, for Jehovah had promised, "They will all die off in the desert!" The only ones left alive among them were Caleb son of Jephunneh and Joshua son of Nun.
Notes
1. While the Israelites experienced (inexplicably) a tremendous growth in their numbers during their Egyptian captivity, after 40 years of freedom they suffer a loss in population. This might be due to harsh conditions in the desert, but they are supposedly being fed manna by Jehovah, who also locates water for them when they are without. There are probably some battle losses, but much of the decrease in population could be due to the many purges Jehovah has instigated, killing thousands. The population of males old enough to bear arms in the first census was 603, 550, in the second census, 40 years later, it is 601, 730, a loss of 1,870. Tribe by tribe, the losses and gains are as follows: Reuben, -24,300, Simeon, -37,100, Gad, -5,150, Judah, +1,900, Issachar, +9,900, Zebulun, +3100, Mannaseh, +20,500, Ephraim, -8,000, Benjamin, +10,200, Dan, +1700, Asher, +11,900, Naphtali, -8,000. Most tribes do gain population, particularly, Mannaseh, Asher, Benjamin, and Issachar, but large losses by Simeon and also by Ephraim and Naphtali offset the gains and create a net loss of population over the 40 years. It must be remembered that these number are only adult males; the total population including women and children would be several times greater. As has been stated many times before the numbers are impossibly high and hugely inflated.
2. The Levites, not included in either census, had a population of 22,000 males above a month old at the time of the first census, and that grew to 23,000 by the time of the second census.
3. Excluding Levi, the first generation after Jacob consists of 11 males that produce descendants. The second generation consists of 42 males, founders of clans. This is less than 4 sons per member. Given 4 sons per male as an average and that the daughters would all marry Israelite cousins, the third generation should consist of 168 males and the fourth, the generation of Moses, 672, Assuming the that Moses was a young man during the Exodus (which is the only way the story makes sense), it was his generation and the one before his that has died out at the end of the 40 years, leaving the fifth and sixth generations to settle the Promised Land. The fifth generation should consist of roughly 2688 males and the sixth, 10,752. This suggests a male population of 13,440, a reasonable amount, not the preposterous 601,730. (Even the seventh and eighth generations add up to little more than 235,000 males.)
4. After 40 years all the men who were over 20 years old in the first census have died out (except for Caleb and Joshua and perhaps some Levites like Moses and maybe Aaron's sons). This means that no one is alive older than 60, that those who were 20 when the first census was taken have all died. Even considering a short life expectancy for desert nomads feeding on manna, it seems remarkable that no one would live to old age. Has Jehovah, by some means, exterminated all the seniors?
After the plague had ended, Jehovah told Moses and Eleazar son of Aaron the priest, "Take a census of the entire Israelite community, family by family, recording all those men 20 years and above and able to bear arms."
Therefore, on the plains of Moab by the River Jordan, opposite the city of Jericho, Moses and Eleazar the priest instructed the elders of Israel to take a census of men above the age of 20, as Jehovah had commanded Moses.
The Israelites who had emigrated from Egypt were listed as follows:
Reuben, the firstborn of Israel, the clans descended from him and their ancestral founder,
Hanochites from Hanoch
Palluites from Pallu
Hezronites from Hezron
Carmites from Carmi
From the clans of Reuben were counted 43,730 men.
Pallu was the ancestor of Eliab, who was the father of Nemuel, Dathan, and Abiram. This was the same Dathan and Abiram, the tribal chiefs that joined Korah in his rebellion against Moses and Aaron, defying Jehovah. As a warning, the earth opened up and swallowed them along with Korah, while Korah's followers, 250 of them, were consumed by fire. (Korah's sons, however, were not killed at that time.)
Simeon:
Jemuelites from Jemuel
Jaminites from Jamin
Jakinites from Jakin
Zoharites from Zohar
Shaulites from Shaul
From the clans of Simeon were counted 22,200 men.
Gad:
Zephonites from Zephon
Haggites from Haggi
Shunites from Shuni
Oznites from Ozni
Erite from Eri
Arodite from Arodi
Arelite from Areli
From the clans of Gad were counted 40,500 men.
Judah (from his surviving sons, for he had two sons, Er and Onan, that died in Canaan):
Shelanites from Shelah
Perezites from Perez
Zerahites from Zerah
Hamulites from Hamul
From the clans of Judah were counted 76,500 men.
Issachar:
Tolaites from Tola
Puites from Puah
Jashubites from Jashub
Shimronites from Shimron
From the clans of Issachar were counted 64,300 men.
Zebulun:
Seredites from Sered
Elonites from Elon
Jahleelites from Jahleel
From the clans of Zebulun were counted 60,500 men.
Joseph, from the clans of Mannaseh and Ephraim:
Mannaseh:
Makirites from Makir, who was the father of Gilead
Gileadites from Gilead
Iezerites from Iezer, a descendant of Gilead
Helekites from Helek, a descendant of Gilead
Asrielites from Asriel
Shechemites from Shechem
Shemidaites from Shemida
Hepherites from Hepher
(Zelophedad, a son of Hepher, had no sons, only daughters, whose names were Mahlah, Noah, Hoglah, Milkah, and Tirzah.)
From the clans of Mannaseh were counted 52,700 men.
Ephraim:
Shuthelahites from Shuthelah
Eranites from Eran, descendant of Shuthelah
Bekerites from Beker
Tahanites from Tahan
From the clans of Ephraim were counted 32,500 men.
Such were the clans descended from Joseph.
Benjamin:
Belaites from Bela
Ardites from Ard, descendant of Bela
Naamites from Naaman, descendant of Bela
Ashbelites from Ashbel
Ahiramites from Ahiram
Shuphamites from Shupham
Huphamites from Hupham
From the clans of Benjamin were counted 45,600 men.
Dan:
Shuhamites from Shuham
From the clans of Dan were counted 64,400 men.
Asher:
Imnites from Imnah
Ishvites from Ishvi
Beriites from Beriah
Heberites from Heber, a descendant of Beriah
Malkielites from Malkiel, a descendant of Beriah
(Asher also had a daughter named Serah.)
From the clans of Asher were counted 53,400 men.
Naphtali:
Jahzeelites from Jahzeel
Gunites from Guni
Jezerites from Jezer
Shillemites from Shillem
From the clans of Naphtali were counted 45,400
In total, the number of Israelite men counted in the census numbered 601,730.
Jehovah instructed Moses, "Divide the land among the tribes and distribute it in accordance to the census and in proportion to each tribe's population. In other words, give the larger tribes more land, the smaller tribes less, each grant of land being in proportion to the size of the tribe receiving it. The land that is to be granted to each tribe will be determined by lot and in accordance with the census. All grants of land, to groups large and small within the tribes, will be determined by lot as well."
Levi:
Gershonites from Gershon
Kohathites from Kohath
Merarites from Merari
There were also Levite subclans, the Libnites, the Hebronites, the Mahlites, the Mushites, and Korahites.
(It may be mentioned that Kohath was the father of Amram; Amram's wife's name was Jochebed, also a descendant of Levi and born among the Levites in Egypt. Amram and Jochebed were the parents of Aaron, Moses, and their sister Miriam. To Aaron were born the sons Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar -- but Nabad and Abihu were killed before the altar when they offered a sacrificial fire from an unauthorized source.
Men a month old or more from the Levite clans numbered 23,000. However, the Levites were not included in the census itself with the rest of Israel's people, because they were to receive no allotment of land.
This is the result of the census when Moses and Eleazar the priest counted the Israelites on the plains of Moab by the River Jordan, opposite the city of Jericho. Not one of them was counted by Moses and Aaron the priest when they conducted the first census in the desert of Sinai, for Jehovah had promised, "They will all die off in the desert!" The only ones left alive among them were Caleb son of Jephunneh and Joshua son of Nun.
Notes
1. While the Israelites experienced (inexplicably) a tremendous growth in their numbers during their Egyptian captivity, after 40 years of freedom they suffer a loss in population. This might be due to harsh conditions in the desert, but they are supposedly being fed manna by Jehovah, who also locates water for them when they are without. There are probably some battle losses, but much of the decrease in population could be due to the many purges Jehovah has instigated, killing thousands. The population of males old enough to bear arms in the first census was 603, 550, in the second census, 40 years later, it is 601, 730, a loss of 1,870. Tribe by tribe, the losses and gains are as follows: Reuben, -24,300, Simeon, -37,100, Gad, -5,150, Judah, +1,900, Issachar, +9,900, Zebulun, +3100, Mannaseh, +20,500, Ephraim, -8,000, Benjamin, +10,200, Dan, +1700, Asher, +11,900, Naphtali, -8,000. Most tribes do gain population, particularly, Mannaseh, Asher, Benjamin, and Issachar, but large losses by Simeon and also by Ephraim and Naphtali offset the gains and create a net loss of population over the 40 years. It must be remembered that these number are only adult males; the total population including women and children would be several times greater. As has been stated many times before the numbers are impossibly high and hugely inflated.
2. The Levites, not included in either census, had a population of 22,000 males above a month old at the time of the first census, and that grew to 23,000 by the time of the second census.
3. Excluding Levi, the first generation after Jacob consists of 11 males that produce descendants. The second generation consists of 42 males, founders of clans. This is less than 4 sons per member. Given 4 sons per male as an average and that the daughters would all marry Israelite cousins, the third generation should consist of 168 males and the fourth, the generation of Moses, 672, Assuming the that Moses was a young man during the Exodus (which is the only way the story makes sense), it was his generation and the one before his that has died out at the end of the 40 years, leaving the fifth and sixth generations to settle the Promised Land. The fifth generation should consist of roughly 2688 males and the sixth, 10,752. This suggests a male population of 13,440, a reasonable amount, not the preposterous 601,730. (Even the seventh and eighth generations add up to little more than 235,000 males.)
4. After 40 years all the men who were over 20 years old in the first census have died out (except for Caleb and Joshua and perhaps some Levites like Moses and maybe Aaron's sons). This means that no one is alive older than 60, that those who were 20 when the first census was taken have all died. Even considering a short life expectancy for desert nomads feeding on manna, it seems remarkable that no one would live to old age. Has Jehovah, by some means, exterminated all the seniors?
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